Robert D. Ingraham's work, The Modern Anglo–Dutch Empire its Origins, Evolution & Outlook, is a book about Empire, focusing on the modern manifestation, the misunderstood Anglo-Dutch System, which originated in the late 16th century and reached maturity between 1688 and 1763, a system the author states is still very much present today. In another sense, the book addresses the fundamental nature of Empire itself, describing it as an ongoing oligarchical idea. The author asserts that the issue of Empire and the human race's long struggle to free itself from it is the most critical political concern today, particularly in the face of a profound economic and strategic crisis, making defeating the Empire's current schemes a matter of life or death for humanity. The book details that Empire is the mortal enemy of humanity and posits that the historical mission of the United States is to eliminate this enemy once and for all.
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Ingraham criticizes virtually all modern academically-approved histories as incompetent. This incompetence stems from a failure to appreciate the profound importance of the American Revolution and the axiomatic species-difference between the American constitutional republic and the British Empire, a difference seen as persisting to the present day. This failure is particularly glaring in the inability to distinguish between American methods of national banking and constitutional currency issuance and the European system of private central banking. A second failure is the widespread contamination of historical analysis with a mechanistic-fatalist approach, observed in both Marxist and various neo/pseudo-Marxist types, as well as the Chicago and Vienna schools' view of impersonal "market forces," which are philosophically identical in their empirical-mechanistic methodology. The subject of history is argued to be Man, yet university histories often evade the basic question of what sets man apart from lower beasts, enabling science, art, and mastery over the planet. A competent history must address this fundamental question of what it means to be human; otherwise, mere factuality produces lies, a problem amplified by the "information society".
By examining the history and nature of the Anglo-Dutch Empire, it seeks to provide glimmers of understanding regarding what in man's nature distinguishes him from lower beasts. The subject is the millennia-long struggle for humanity to free itself politically, economically, culturally, and morally from the ongoing ontological reality of an oligarchical idea of Empire. The specific focus on the modern Anglo-Dutch System is due to the current threat it poses. The creation and consolidation of this system, particularly from 1582 to 1763, requires the most attention, though the rise of Venetian power after 1100 and British actions against the American Republic in the 19th and 20th centuries are also examined. The axiomatic nature of the modern oligarchical empire was complete by 1763. The book advocates a voluntaristic view of history, shaped by the creativity of individual human minds, arguing that history is not determined by events or inevitable economic processes. Civilization progresses when societies are imbued with this notion of humanity; mankind suffers when empires dominate and rule the many like cattle.
The Anti-Humans
Ingraham contrasts an "anti-human outlook" with a view of humanity's potential. The anti-human view is illustrated by a quote suggesting indifference to suffering and considering methods like widespread death (a "Black Death") to control population growth, as war has been insufficient. In contrast, a passage describes man as standing in noble prime, free through reason, strong through law, and nature's lord.
1582 is identified as the beginning of the modern form of empire, the Anglo-Dutch Liberal System. The philosophical, economic, and scientific ideas transmitted from this "revolution" are described as virtually all-encompassing, including concepts of private finance, money, trade, and the philosophical empiricism of Sarpi and his epigones. Sarpi's denial of basic human nature is highlighted as an important guidepost. Coherent with the Empire idea of rule by the few, there is a necessity to deny lawful human creativity. The prospect of a self-governing republic fostering reason, progress, and creativity is "anathema" to the Empire crowd, whose view is "Olympian oligarchical". From their perspective, Sarpi's most valuable contribution is his understanding that "mental chains" are more effective than armies for enforcing human servitude.
Ingraham dismisses contemporary ideas suggesting history progresses in irreversible linear stages, such as moves to post-industrial or globalized economies, as "transparent Empire propaganda" and a "tired tactic". This propaganda is linked to groups like the City of London and Wall Street, who have sought to reverse policies like those of Franklin Roosevelt and the American System since 1971, aiming to return to a system of private financiers ruling the world. Sun Yat-Sen's 1924 critique of English intellectuals advocating cosmopolitanism is quoted, where he argued it was a tactic by imperialist nations to maintain dominance. The author states that substituting "globalization" for "cosmopolitanism" reveals the same British imperial outlook today.
As of August 2008, the modern system of empire was described as facing a profound existential crisis due to its policies causing chaos, hyperinflation, and financial ruin, alongside growing global resistance to oligarchical rule. This crisis, while dangerous, is also presented as an opportunity to rid the world of the "pestilence of Empire". Historically, American patriots such as Benjamin Franklin and Abraham Lincoln viewed the System of Empire as America's mortal enemy, with deep roots, a knowledge that is largely lost today.
Roman Law
Roman Law and Aristotelianism are referred to as the Empire's "spoor". The Corpus Juris Civilis is presented as the source of modern contract law and property rights theories, characterized by a "completely bestial" approach to the treatment of enemy possessions, including the enslavement of captured free persons and the claim of found property based on "natural law". The policies of Venice, particularly after 1200, are blamed for destroying Europe's recovery after the fall of the Roman Empire.
Paolo Sarpi, as chief counselor to Venice, published The History of the Inquisition and The History of the Council of Trent, signalling the end of the Venetian-Spanish-Vatican alliance. Sarpi led Venice in defiance of papal authority, resulting in excommunication and an Interdict, and survived an assassination attempt by agents from Rome. In Sarpi's perspective, there is no room for hypothesis, creativity, or discovery; only "observation" and linear data calculation, described as 21st-century "information theory" where human identity is impossible and discovery is "outlawed".
Razor Not So Sharp
William Ockham's principle, Pluralitas non est ponenda sine neccesitate, is explained as a reductionist method denying human reason, hypothesis, or universal principles, based solely on sense perception. Ockham is called a fanatic materialist whose approach eliminated causality from Aristoteleanism. Sarpi is seen as taking this sense-perception basis to an extreme where human reasoning ceases to exist. The Sarpi cabal launched a public attack on Aristoteleanism at the University of Padua in 1604, using Galileo's lectures targeting Aristotle's cosmology as a political weapon to overthrow medieval scholasticism.
The emergence of modern oligarchic entities like the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and British empires required new legal doctrines, although the ancient Roman/feudal view of the majority of mankind as exploitable and sub-human was retained. Legal theorists like Fernando Vasquez de Menchaca argued that private life and interests precede the state, which exists only to protect private property, based on the idea that man, made in God's image, has inherent dominium (ownership). Society's power is seen as deriving from the individual, property rights, the family, and free communication. Philippe du Plessis-Mornay's Vindiciae contra tyrannos addressed resistance to oppressive princes, arguing threats to life or property were the only non-religious justifications. Mornay's concept of "popular sovereignty" and the divine basis of private property, predating and taking precedence over the state, is interpreted as proposing resistance to sovereignty rather than tyranny, reflecting the "Roman Law's bestial view of man in its most naked form". These ideas influenced John Locke's "Social Contract" theory. Hugo Grotius is described as justifying the new Empire by synthesizing the ideas of these earlier theorists.
False Idols and Economics
John Locke is characterized as a "world-class plagiarizer," whose economic theories, social contract ideas, and even his philosophical work on human understanding are largely taken from earlier sources like the Salamancans, Althusius, and Sarpi. Locke's Two Treatises of Government is called his "hymn to private property". He argues that property begins when man applies his labor to remove things from nature. The "great and CHIEF END" of forming commonwealths and governments is the preservation of property. Locke states persons are free by "Native Right" and their "PROPERTIES are THEIR OWN," arguing against a King taking goods or money at pleasure. He asserts that if legislators try "TO TAKE AWAY, AND DESTROY THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE," they enter a state of war with the people, who are then "absolved from any further Obedience". Locke also defended the institution of slavery; in the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina, he stated every freeman had "absolute power and authority over his negro slaves," and he defended slave raids as "just wars" in his 1698 Instructions to Governor Nicholson of Virginia. Locke's notion of freedom is presented as derived from Roman Law, viewing man as a "beast" free in a state of nature with the right to defend life, liberty, and property. In Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money, Locke treats money as a "special" kind of property with "magical powers," arguing for its "natural interest" because it "turns the wheels of trade". This "rabid monetarism," giving money intrinsic value, is contrasted with the American System view of money and credit as tools for sovereign economic development, noting Locke's ideas on money are found in the Salamancan Navarrus. Locke maintains the supreme power cannot take property without consent because property preservation is the end of government. Sparta and Venice served as models for parliamentary rule for Locke and his predecessors. Parliamentary governments are seen as designed to be weak, limited-sovereignty systems subordinate to a financial oligarchy, in contrast to the Commonwealth idea of sovereignty "of the people, by the people, and for the people" which recognizes no higher power above the defense of the common good.
Malthusianism is the core feature of the Empire's anti-human outlook, aiming to control, loot, and kill humanity. Giovanni Botero, linked to the Salamanca school, was an early proponent in the post-1582 era, attributing urban poverty to overpopulation and lack of resources, influencing figures like William Petty. The de la Court brothers envisioned a "civic republic" based on an extreme Hobbesian view of individuals, believing "Unqualified and mean persons should have nothing to do with government and administration which must be reserved for qualified people alone". A mythology portraying England as a great maritime power defending civilization was developed by figures like Francis Bacon and James Harrington. Harrington, influenced by Venice, saw political power stemming from economic wealth and described an oligarchical society based on it. Nicholas Barbon's A Discourse of Trade praised free trade and argued England was the proper seat for a maritime empire.
The London-based entity that came into existence after the Seven Years War in 1763 is described as a global oligarchical Empire founded on usury, financial speculation, slavery, drug-trafficking, private central banking, and permanent war. The author states the British Empire was the leading slave and drug trafficker, responsible for immense casualties, and has been the mortal enemy of the United States down to the present day. The resistance to acknowledging these facts is noted. In the 19th century, the British Empire imposed a deflationary gold standard, hindering physical economic development in other nations, and used its financial dominance to control nations, while actively trying to destroy National Banking and the American System in the United States. The post-1763 oligarchical outlook, seen in Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, is described as a "satanic empiricism" by the 19th century, where concerns for custom and human culture vanish, money reigns supreme, avarice is the law, and military force defends the system. This view is fundamentally different ("a species difference") from the republican-Commonwealth concept of man.
The book contrasts this with the views of American founders. John Robinson emphasized leaders promoting the common good. John Winthrop stressed justice, mercy, and the public good outweighing private interests. Benjamin Franklin defined good as rational, moral, and benevolent actions providing lasting satisfaction. The Declaration of Independence asserts that all men are created equal and endowed with unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
Commonwealth vs. Empire
The nature of the American Republic is derived from the Commonwealth principles of sovereignty and the general welfare, which are inseparable. Sovereignty is defined as sovereignty over the oligarchy, contrasting with the Lockean view that government exists solely to protect private property rights. The sovereign nation has the full authority to defend the General Welfare against Empire encroachments. The American System is a sovereign credit system, using government power to develop the nation for the Common Good, unlike the Lockean view of money as an independent entity controlled by a central banking system. Henry C. Carey's writings are cited to show how "free trade" led to economic crises, while protective tariffs fostered wealth and freedom. 19th-century Empire figures like Bentham and Mill promoted a utilitarian philosophy based on the pursuit of pleasure, justifying global looting. A "world company project" was envisioned as a Malthusian corporate structure to replace the nation-state, described as "Mussolini-style corporatism". Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke against excessive private power gained through wealth, advocating for the individual's right to security, livelihood, and a decent living, and outlined an "economic bill of rights" aimed at ensuring security and well-being for the people, warning against yielding to the "spirit of Fascism" by neglecting these rights.
Timeline of Main Events
Circa 284-305 AD: Reign of Emperor Diocletian in Rome.
Medieval Period: Venetian Empire dominates the Mediterranean, trading actively in Flanders and London.
Venetian Fondi initiate two projects: translation of Aristotle's works into Latin and revival/republication of Roman Civil Law (Corpus Juris Civilis).
13th Century: Lombard banking houses, particularly Florentine ones like Bardi, Peruzzi, and Acciaiuoli, are prominent. Venice controls gold and silver trading, acting as the "godfather" of the Lombard banking system.
Undated (After 13th Century Lombard Decline): Venice turns to the Hapsburg dynasty as new allies.
Venetians create a new financial front, the House of Fugger, to replace the Lombard bankers. Jacob Fugger, initially a spice trader, becomes Venice's agent, controlling silver and copper mines and establishing the most powerful banking house in Europe. The Fuggers bankroll the Austrian Hapsburgs.
1520s: The Netherlands, including present-day Belgium and Luxembourg, is under Spanish-Hapsburg rule.
1523: First public burning of a Protestant heretic in the Netherlands.
1530s: Hundreds of Protestants executed in the Netherlands.
1567: Duke of Alva arrives in the Netherlands with 10,000 Spanish troops to enforce the Inquisition and impose economic looting to pay Spanish debts to Fugger creditors.
Alva establishes the Council of Blood, which executes over 12,000 people over six years. Military campaigns are conducted to subjugate the Dutch.
1572: Alva's campaign leads to the capture, looting, and burning of cities like Mechlin, Zutphen, and Haarlem.
1576: The Spanish Fury: Antwerp is occupied, over 8,000 civilians are slaughtered, and their bodies are left in the streets.
1579: Vindiciae contra tyrannos is published, attributed to Phillipe du Plessis-Mornay. This is a significant work in the "Right to Resistance" movement.
1582: The "Giovani revolution" takes place in Venice, marking a takeover by a new faction.
1586: Paolo Sarpi is in Rome and is befriended by Martin de Azpilcueta Navarro, who provides political protection.
The Levant Company is founded in London.
1587: The first "public" bank in Venice, the Banco della Piazza di Rialto (Bank of Venice), is established, five years after the Giovani takeover.
1588: The Venice Company is founded in London.
1590s: Financial revolution begins in Amsterdam.
1594: The Dutch "Long Distance Company" is founded, starting trade with Asia.
1598: Sir Edwin Sandys, residing in Venice, writes Europae Speculum on the state of religion in Europe. His editor and alleged co-author is Paolo Sarpi.
1600: The (old) East India Company is founded in London.
First Dutch ships reach Japan.
1601: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) is founded. Johan van Oldenbarneveldt states its purpose is to damage the Spanish and Portuguese.
1605: Sandys's book Europae Speculum is published in Paris by Giovanni Diodoti, with an introduction by Sarpi.
The Dutch begin their takeover of Indonesia.
1606: First known voyage of Dutch slave ships.
1608: The New Bourse opens in Amsterdam, replacing the Antwerp exchange.
1609: The Bank of Amsterdam (Wisselbank) is founded, modeled on the Bank of Venice.
The Treaty of Antwerp is signed, with Spain officially recognizing Dutch independence. Venice is the first government to recognize Dutch independence and the first to receive a Dutch ambassador.
1618-1648: The Thirty Years War is provoked, partly by Venice.
1618: Edwin Sandys is made treasurer of the London Virginia Company and effectively runs it until 1623.
1619: Two dozen African slaves, purchased from a Dutch man-of-war, are brought into Virginia, the first black slaves in an English-speaking North American colony. Sandys introduces tobacco cultivation as the main cash crop.
The Banco Giro is established in Venice, gradually absorbing the Banco della Piazza di Rialto.
Under Sandys's leadership, the tidewater slave-plantation system is established in Virginia.
By 1620: Venice has become a foremost European center for clearing Bills of Exchange, transitioning from a commercial economy to a rentier and speculative one.
By 1621: All institutions of the modern oligarchical state (Bank, Bourse, VOC) are in place in the Netherlands. The native population of the Island of Band is exterminated by the VOC for refusing a nutmeg monopoly, and slaves are brought in.
1623: Paolo Sarpi dies.
Mid-1600s: The Amsterdam Bourse is described as "the place where the whole world trades."
By 1650: The Netherlands is largely transformed into a rentier economy. A 21st-century style market in options trading exists. Dutch investors hold a significant portion of English financial instruments.
1661: Portugal submits to a treaty granting the Dutch complete free trade and the right for Dutch citizens to settle in Portuguese territory.
1668: The Swedish Riksbank is founded (modern charter adopted in 1897).
1682: William Penn writes the Frame of the Government of Pennsylvania.
1688: A full-blown derivatives market exists in Amsterdam.
Joseph de la Vega publishes Confusion de Confusiones, describing the Amsterdam speculative market.
Preparations for a Dutch invasion of England are underway. Covert communications are maintained between The Hague (Orange Court) and English conspirators, with Henry Sidney acting as the go-between.
The Letter of Invitation to William of Orange is sent, urging William III of the Netherlands to invade England.
William of Orange lands in England with an invasion fleet of 21,000 troops, artillery, and 500 ships.
December 18, 1688: Dutch troops, under William's command, occupy London. This is described as a foreign takeover of Britain by the Dutch-Venetian system.
1688-1763: Maturation of the Anglo-Dutch Empire, a new type of empire built for the benefit of a private financial oligarchy.
After 1688: Proposals are made for a "Lombard Bank, modeled on the Bank of Amsterdam" in London.
1690: The VOC has 20,000 men in Asia, while the British East India Company has 1,000.
1690s: Dutch financial practices are imported into London.
1694-1698: The British "financial revolution" occurs, described as a seizure of power by private oligarchical interests and the subservience of government institutions to that oligarchy.
1694: The Bank of England is founded. Its founder, William Paterson, was involved in the Dutch invasion. The first Governor and Deputy Governor were John Houblon and Michael Godfrey, who had served on a jury that acquitted a pro-Empire figure.
1697: The first in a series of Acts is passed by Parliament giving the Bank of England a total monopoly over all banking in England. Its capital is increased to £2.2 million.
1707: The Bank of England takes over the exclusive management of the national debt (£7 million).
1710: The Bank of England's capital is increased to £5.5 million.
1713: The Treaty of Utrecht establishes English maritime and commercial supremacy, but Amsterdam's financial power remains greater than London's.
After 1720: Huge quantities of Dutch capital enter English financial markets.
1730: Benjamin Franklin writes Dialogue between Philocles and Horation, Concerning Virtue and Pleasure.
By 1730s: 30% of East India Company stock and 35% of Bank of England stock is held by the Dutch. An additional 10% of both is held by Geneva-based Swiss investors.
1742: Parliament gives the Bank of England the sole authority to issue bank notes, making them the only legal tender in Britain. Parliament states its intent to prevent the creation of any other joint-stock bank company in England.
By 1750: Dutch investors hold 20% of shares on the London Stock Exchange and 26% of England's national debt.
1763: The Anglo-Dutch Empire, as a new type of empire, reaches a point of maturation.
1800: The modern Banque de France is created, controlled by private shareholders.
1813: Memoirs of Algernon Sydney by George Wilson Meadley is printed.
1861: President Abraham Lincoln revives the American System with policies of high protective tariffs, issuance of a national currency ("Greenbacks"), and economic development projects like the Transcontinental Railroad.
1866-1876: The fledgling US national banking system is sabotaged by demands for specie redemption of national bank notes.
1873: Walter Bagehot publishes Lombard Street.
1875: The German Reichsbank is founded as a privately owned central bank.
1883: The Bank of Japan, a new private Central Bank, is given a monopoly over note issuance.
1888: Gold convertibility resumes in Japan.
1891: A proposal for a state-owned bank with a monopoly on note issuance in Switzerland is defeated by opponents who want a completely private bank.
1893: The Bank of Italy is founded, consolidating several regional banks of issuance.
1895-1904: The Dutch colonial government in Indonesia takes effective control of opium production under the "regie system."
1897: Japan officially joins the gold standard. The Swedish Riksbank adopts a modern charter based on the British model.
1900: The Directors of the Reichsbank publish a pamphlet stating their priorities: equalization of money demands and maintaining the gold standard and financial system.
1905: The Swiss National Bank is founded, modeled on the Reichsbank.
1906-07: The Banque de France's role is crucial to Britain's ability to maintain the international gold standard during financial crises.
1908: The Danish National Bank receives a new charter with features of a modern central bank.
1909: The German Reichsbank is given greater powers in a banking "reform."
1911: The Commonwealth Bank of Australia is established with limited Central Bank functions.
During the next ten years (after 1895-1904): Dutch official drug production in Indonesia increases dramatically, with the development of new opium strains with higher morphine content.
After World War I: British install central banks in new nations created by the Versailles Treaty (Austria 1923, Hungary 1924, Czechoslovakia 1926). Central banks or Bank of England subsidiaries are established in British colonies and other British-dominated banks in non-Empire countries.
Until 1931: Dutch official drug production continues in Indonesia until the Japanese invasion during World War II.
1931: The Bank of International Settlements (BIS) is founded, enhancing the power of the global Central Banking System.
1933 (March): Franklin D. Roosevelt appeals to Congress and the American people to restore power to them, establishing a new relationship between government and people.
1936 (January 3rd): Franklin D. Roosevelt presents a "broad program" to Congress aimed at establishing factors of security.
1971: Richard Nixon's actions lead to a post-1971 world, characterized as treasonous in the context of the American System.
Since 1971: The Central Banking system extends further, seeking to destroy national economic sovereignty and impose global elite rule.
1998: The European Central Bank (ECB) is created by the Maastricht Treaty. This private bank is completely independent of European national governments and institutions and has the power to dictate monetary, budgetary, and credit policies.
2008: European nations have surrendered most of their sovereignty, and national central banks are subservient to the ECB.
Cast of Characters
Acciaiuoli: A major Florentine banking house in the 13th century, part of the Lombard League, influenced by Venice.
Althusias, Johannes: Influential figure in the early 17th century contributing to the debate on the new form of Empire.
Alva, Duke of: Spanish figure who arrived in the Netherlands in 1567 to enforce the Inquisition and economic looting, establishing the Council of Blood. Known for brutal military campaigns and massacres.
Aquinas, Thomas: Medieval philosopher and theologian whose economic views are rejected by some figures in the source.
Aristotle: Ancient Greek philosopher whose works were translated into Latin as part of a Venetian project in the medieval period. His economic views are opposed by some figures in the source.
Azpilcueta Navarro, Martin de (Navarrus): Perhaps the most influential economic theorist of the School of Salamanca, a personal friend of Paolo Sarpi. He was a key figure in developing the "Quantity Theory of Money" and defended money-changing, usury, and financial derivatives.
Bagehot, Walter: British writer who, in his 1873 work Lombard Street, highlighted the advantage of London over Amsterdam as the seat of the Anglo-Dutch Empire due to its relative security from invasion and revolution.
Bardi: A major Florentine banking house in the 13th century, part of the Lombard League, influenced by Venice.
Beeckman, Isaac: Figure in communication with Mersenne and Descartes, part of the Mersenne Circle.
Bentham, Jeremy: Mentioned in relation to the ideology of the Empire.
Bernanke, Ben: Mentioned as a figure in the modern context of the Central Banking System.
Beza, Theodore: Figure mentioned in relation to the "Right to Resistance" authors.
Black, Fisher: Mentioned in relation to modern financial derivatives.
Bolingbroke: Mentioned as a figure related to the Anglo-Dutch Empire.
Botero, Giovanni: Mentioned as a figure related to the new form of Empire.
Buchanan, George: Figure mentioned in relation to the "Right to Resistance" authors.
Cantillon, Richard: Mentioned as a figure related to the Anglo-Dutch Empire.
Cavendish, William: An English ally of Henry Sidney in plotting with William of Orange for the invasion of England in 1688.
Chaitkin, Anton: Historian acknowledged for influencing the author's work.
Churchill (Marlborough): Rallied to the side of the Dutch after William of Orange landed in England in 1688.
Compton, Bishop: An English ally of Henry Sidney in plotting with William of Orange for the invasion of England in 1688.
Covarruvias: Figure cited by Grotius as a source for his ideas.
Cromwell, Oliver: Mentioned as a historical figure, likely in contrast or relation to the events described.
Cusa, Nicholas of: Mentioned as a historical figure, likely in contrast or relation to the events described.
Davillier: A large private bank in France during the 19th century, with an incestuous relationship with the Banque de France.
De la Vega, Joseph: Sephardic Jew who published Confusion de Confusiones in 1688, detailing the practices of the Amsterdam speculative market.
De Menchaca, Fernando Vasquez: Author whose arguments, particularly on the precedence of private life and property over the state, are echoed by John Locke. He argues that the state exists solely to protect private property and justifies his views by asserting that man is made in the image of God.
Descartes, Rene: Philosopher whose works spread through Dutch universities during the era of the DeWitt brothers. He was in continual communication with Mersenne.
DeWitt, Johan: Head of the Dutch Empire, closely related to Algernon Sidney. He personall published an edition of Descartes' La Geometric and authored a major work on demographics and insurance, pioneering the concept of calculating the value of a human life. Met a similar fate to Oldenbarneveldt at the hands of the House of Orange.
Diocletian: Roman Emperor whose reign is referenced in relation to the origins of the themes discussed.
Diodoti, Giovanni: Huguenot leader, friend and confident of Paolo Sarpi, who published Sandys's Europae Speculum in Paris in 1605.
Dominus, Marco Antonio de: Mentioned in relation to Sarpi's network.
Donato, Leonardo: Mentioned in relation to the Giovani takeover in Venice.
Elizabeth I, Queen: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Erasmus: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Frank, Barney: Mentioned as a figure in the modern context of the Central Banking System.
Franklin, Benjamin: American figure quoted on the nature of "the good" and the pursuit of happiness. His views are contrasted with the ideology of central banking.
Frederick V (Winter King): Mentioned in relation to the Thirty Years War, possibly as a figure supported by Venice or its allies.
Fugger, Jacob: Insignificant Austrian spice trader residing in Venice who was picked up by the Venetians to control silver and copper mines in central Europe. He created the most powerful banking house in Europe and bankrolled the Austrian Hapsburgs.
Galilei, Galileo: Italian scientist and contemporary of Sarpi and the Mersenne Circle.
Galilei, Vincenzo: Mentioned in relation to the Mersenne Circle.
Gassendi, Pierre: Figure in communication with Mersenne, part of the Mersenne Circle.
Gentili, Alberico: Figure cited by Grotius as a source for his ideas and a contributor to the debate on the new form of Empire.
Godfrey, Michael: First Deputy Governor of the Bank of England, who had sat on a jury that acquitted a pro-Empire figure in 1681.
Grotius, Hugo: Influential legal theorist whose work on international law, "law of the seas," and corporate law is based on Roman Law and incorporates ideas from other figures like the Salamancans. He justifies the new Empire and advocates for aristocratic republics, citing Sparta and Venice as examples.
Guelph-dominated Lombard League: Alliance controlled by Venice that ruled over Europe and imposed a financial system based on usury and looting in the medieval period.
Hadrian: Roman Emperor whose time is referenced in the context of the Codex Justinianus.
Halifax: Rallied to the side of the Dutch after William of Orange landed in England in 1688.
Hamilton, Alexander: American figure associated with the American System of economics, which is contrasted with the Anglo-Dutch financial system.
Hapsburg Dynasty: New allies of Venice after the decline of the Lombard bankers, first in Austria, then in Spain. Bankrolled by the Fuggers into controlling the Holy Roman Empire.
Hobbes, Thomas: English philosopher whose social theory, based on individual passions and property rights, is seen as coherent with Sarpi's philosophical empiricism.
Hotman, Francois: Figure cited by Grotius as a source for his ideas.
Hottinguer: A large private bank in France during the 19th century, with an incestuous relationship with the Banque de France.
Houblon, John: First Governor of the Bank of England, who had sat on a jury that acquitted a pro-Empire figure in 1681.
Howitt, Mary: Mentioned in relation to Sir Edwin Sandys.
Ingraham, Robert D.: Author of "The Modern Anglo–Dutch Empire," dedicating the work to his wife and acknowledging the influence of Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. and historians H. Graham Lowry, Anton Chaitkin, and Alan Salisbury.
Ingraham, Andrea Joy: Wife of the author, to whom the work is dedicated.
James I, King: English King who chartered the London Virginia Company, one of whose founders was Sir Edwin Sandys.
Jan Pieterszoon: VOC Governor General who ordered the extermination of the native population of the Island of Band in 1621.
Juana, Rodrio Munoz de: Author of "Scholastic Morality and the Birth of Economics: the Thought of Martin de Azpilcueta," cited as a source.
Justinian: Roman Emperor whose compilation of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, is discussed.
LaRouche, Jr., Lyndon H.: Figure whose writings influenced almost every part of the author's work. Associated with the American System of economics.
Law, John: Mentioned in relation to monetary theory and speculation. His "Money and Trade Considered" contains a theory of value similar to the Salamancans.
Lessius, Leonard de (Leonard de Leys): Native of Belgium who studied Antwerp financial markets. His writings on the "fortuitous" value of money, risk, and interest rates were highly influential. His major work, De justitia et jure, went through many editions.
Leibniz, Gottfried: Mentioned as a historical figure, likely in contrast or relation to the events described.
Lincoln, Abraham: Great American President who revived the American System with policies like protective tariffs, a national currency ("Greenbacks"), and infrastructure development.
List, Friedrich: Mentioned as a figure associated with the American System of economics.
Locke, John: English philosopher whose "Social Contract" theory is influenced by "Right to Resistance" authors. His arguments on the precedence of private property and the limited role of the state in Two Treatises of Government are seen as echoing de Menchaca. His views on money in Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money are described as a "cheap knock-off copy" of Navarrus.
Logan, James: Mentioned in relation to the Commonwealth in America.
Lowry, H. Graham: Historian acknowledged for influencing the author's work.
Mallet: A large private bank in France during the 19th century, with an incestuous relationship with the Banque de France.
Marco Foscarini: Venetian Doge who reported on the similarities between Sarpi's ideas and those of John Locke.
Meadley, George Wilson: Author of Memoirs of Algernon Sydney, cited as a source.
Mersenne, Marin: Figure in the Mersenne Circle, in continual communication with Beeckman and Descartes.
Micanzio: Figure associated with the Mersenne Circle and Galileo.
Montagu, Charles: Mentioned as a historical figure related to the financial revolution in Britain.
Mornay, Phillipe du Plessis (attributed): Author of Vindiciae contra tyrannos, a key work in the "Right to Resistance" movement, whose ideas influenced John Locke's "Social Contract" theory.
Morosini, Andrea: Mentioned in relation to the Giovani takeover in Venice.
Mountbatten, Philip: Mentioned, likely in a modern context related to the themes of the Empire.
Mussolini, Benito: Mentioned in relation to "corporativism" as an ideological descendant of the system created by the Giovani takeover in Venice.
Newton, Isaac: Mentioned as a historical figure, likely in contrast or relation to the empiricism associated with Sarpi and others.
Nixon, Richard: American President whose actions in 1971 are described as treasonous in the context of the American System.
Ockham, William of: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Oldenbarneveldt, Johan van: Founder of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), stating its purpose was to damage Spanish and Portuguese interests. He ultimately met a similar fate to the DeWitts at the hands of the House of Orange.
Orange, William of (William III): Prince of Orange, invited by Venice's fifth column in England to invade England in 1688. He led the Dutch invasion fleet and occupied London. Became King of England.
Orangists: Political faction in the Netherlands, opposed to figures like Oldenbarneveldt and the DeWitts.
Orford, Lord (Edward Russell): An English ally of Henry Sidney in plotting with William of Orange for the invasion of England in 1688.
Paterson, William: Founder of the Bank of England, who had been in Holland with William III and active in effecting the Dutch invasion.
Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri de: Mentioned in relation to the Mersenne Circle.
Penn, William: Author of the Frame of the Government of Pennsylvania, whose views on man's role as God's Deputy are contrasted with the ideology of central banking.
Perkins, John: Mentioned in relation to modern financial derivatives.
Peruzzi: A major Florentine banking house in the 13th century, part of the Lombard League, influenced by Venice.
Petty, William: Mentioned in relation to the Mersenne Circle and the Anglo-Dutch Empire.
Petty, William Fitzmaurice: Mentioned in relation to the Anglo-Dutch Empire.
Philocles: Character in Benjamin Franklin's Dialogue between Philocles and Horation, Concerning Virtue and Pleasure.
Portland: Rallied to the side of the Dutch after William of Orange landed in England in 1688.
Quinn, Stephen: Co-author of "The Bank of Amsterdam and the Leap to Central Bank Money," cited as a source.
Rembrandt van Rijn: Dutch painter, contemporary with the Dutch oligarchical culture, described as being persecuted by the Dutch establishment.
Roberds, William: Co-author of "The Bank of Amsterdam and the Leap to Central Bank Money," cited as a source.
Rohatyn, Felix: Mentioned as an ideological descendant of Mussolini's "corporativism."
Roosevelt, Franklin D.: American President who in 1933 appealed to Congress and the people to restore power and established a new relationship between government and people.
Rothschild: A large private bank in France during the 19th century, with an incestuous relationship with the Banque de France.
Russell, Edward (Lord Orford): See Orford, Lord.
Russell, William: Mentioned as a historical figure related to Algernon Sidney.
Sagredo, Giovanni: Mentioned in relation to Galileo and Sarpi's network.
Salisbury, Alan: Historian acknowledged for influencing the author's work.
Salviati, Filippo: Mentioned in relation to Galileo.
Sandys, Sir Edwin: Resided in Venice in 1598 and wrote Europae Speculum, edited by Paolo Sarpi. He was a founder of the London Virginia Company, where he introduced African slaves and tobacco cultivation. He was active in Parliament and the British East India Company. Also escorted James I into London.
Santorio, Santorio: Mentioned in relation to Galileo and Sarpi's network.
Sarpi, Paolo: Friend and confident of Giovanni Diodoti, editor and alleged co-author of Sandys's Europae Speculum. He befriended Sandys during his stay in Venice and was befriended and politically protected by Navarrus in Rome. A central figure in the Giovani revolution and the Interdict crisis, and a key intellectual figure connected to the Mersenne Circle and Galileo. His philosophical empiricism is seen as coherent with Hobbesian social theory.
Schiller, Friedrich: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Scholes, Myron: Mentioned in relation to modern financial derivatives.
Sidney, Algernon: English republican figure, praised by John Locke. His republicanism is seen as revealed by his close relationship with Johan DeWitt. He argued for rule by an aristocracy and defended property rights.
Sidney, Henry: Grand-nephew of Philip Sidney and brother of Algernon, who acted as the go-between for covert communications between the Orange Court and English conspirators planning the invasion of England in 1688. Authored the Letter of Invitation to William of Orange.
Sidney, Philip: Mentioned in relation to Henry Sidney.
Suarez, Francisco: Figure praised by Grotius and cited as a source for his ideas.
Sunderland, Lord: An English ally of Henry Sidney in plotting with William of Orange for the invasion of England in 1688.
Sun Yat-Sen: Mentioned as a figure, likely associated with the American System of economics.
Swift, Jonathan: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Thatcher, Margaret: Mentioned, likely in a modern context related to the themes of the Empire.
Thompson, George: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Torquemada, Tomás de: Mentioned as a historical figure.
Vattel, Edmund de: Mentioned in relation to the American System of economics.
Vega, Joseph de la: See De la Vega, Joseph.
Victoria I, Queen: Mentioned in relation to the British Empire. Walter Bagehot wrote during her reign.
Vitoria, Francisco de: Figure cited by Grotius as the source for his views on "Just War" and a contributor to the debate on the new form of Empire. Mentioned as one of the Salamancans.
Walsingham, Thomas: Mentioned in relation to Sarpi and the English court.
Warwick: Mentioned in relation to Shakespeare's Henry VI.
Wertz, Will: Author of "5 Lessons of the 14th Century Dark Age," cited as a source.
William the Silent: Mentioned in relation to the Dutch struggle against Spanish-Hapsburg rule.
Winthrop, John: Mentioned as a figure in the Commonwealth in America.
Wotton, Edward: Mentioned in relation to Sarpi and the English court.
Wotton, Henry: Mentioned in relation to Sarpi and the English court.
Zabarella, Giocomo: Mentioned in relation to Sarpi's network.
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