NATO's Secret Armies - Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe by Daniele Ganser

GPT Summary

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The following Summary of Daniele Ganser’s book, NATO's Secret Armies - Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe, was created using the GPT Summarizer Prompts I posted here. (I used GROK to render my version of the American Gladio, Jeffrey Allen Lash above).

Introduction

NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe by Daniele Ganser provides a detailed examination of the secretive networks established by NATO during the Cold War. These networks, known as Operation Gladio, were created to prepare Western Europe for potential Soviet invasions by establishing secret “stay-behind” armies. These armies, however, also engaged in acts of terrorism and political manipulation aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Europe.

Summary

🔍 Formation and Objectives of Operation Gladio

Operation Gladio was conceived as a response to the threat of Soviet expansionism in Europe following World War II. The stay-behind armies were inspired by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) from World War II, which had successfully organized resistance movements in occupied territories. NATO, with substantial support from the CIA and MI6, established these secret armies across Western Europe. Designed to be activated in the event of a Soviet invasion, the operatives were trained in guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and intelligence gathering. These operatives were chosen for their strong anti-communist beliefs, often with connections to right-wing extremist groups (Page 1).

🛡️ Strategic Role in NATO’s Defense Plan

Operation Gladio played a critical role in NATO’s defense strategy, ensuring that Western Europe could resist a potential Soviet invasion. The secret armies were strategically placed across NATO member states, with each national branch managed by local intelligence agencies under the coordination of NATO’s Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) (Page 12). The Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) and the Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) were responsible for maintaining the operational readiness of these networks, integrating them into NATO’s overall defense strategy (Pages 16-17).

💣 The “Strategy of Tension”

The “strategy of tension” was a core tactic used by the Gladio networks to manipulate political outcomes in Western Europe. This strategy involved orchestrating terrorist attacks and falsely attributing them to left-wing groups, such as the Red Brigades in Italy. These attacks were intended to create a climate of fear and instability, justifying increased security measures and the repression of leftist political movements. A key example is the 1972 Peteano bombing in Italy, where the attack, initially blamed on the Red Brigades, was later revealed to have been carried out by right-wing extremists linked to Gladio (Page 7). Similar incidents occurred across Europe, all aimed at discrediting the political left and maintaining conservative control.

🕵️ Roles of Intelligence Agencies

The CIA and MI6 were the primary architects of Operation Gladio, working closely with local intelligence agencies in NATO member states to establish and maintain the stay-behind networks. In Italy, the military intelligence agencies SIFAR and SID managed the Gladio operations, coordinating with right-wing extremist groups to carry out terrorist attacks as part of the “strategy of tension” (Pages xi, xii). These agencies also protected Gladio from exposure, ensuring the secrecy of these operations for decades (Page 12).

🇮🇹 Italy: The Heart of Gladio

Italy served as the epicenter of Operation Gladio, where the network’s activities were most extensive and impactful. The Italian Gladio network was deeply embedded in the country’s political landscape, with the “strategy of tension” used extensively to manipulate public opinion and discredit the political left. Several high-profile terrorist attacks in Italy, including the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing and the 1980 Bologna railway station bombing, were linked to Gladio operatives. These attacks, initially blamed on left-wing extremists, were part of a broader campaign to maintain Italy’s alignment with NATO and prevent the rise of communism (Pages 4-5). Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti ultimately revealed the existence of Gladio during a parliamentary inquiry in 1990, leading to widespread investigations across Europe (Pages 10-12).

🛑 Exposure and Aftermath

Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti’s 1990 revelation of Gladio’s existence marked a turning point, prompting investigations that uncovered similar networks in other NATO countries, including Belgium, France, and Germany (Pages 1, 12). Governments and intelligence agencies faced significant questions about the ethics of state-sponsored terrorism and the manipulation of democratic processes. Despite these revelations, many aspects of Gladio’s operations remain shrouded in secrecy, with ongoing debates about the full extent of the activities (Pages 16-17).

🧠 Psychological Impact on Europe

Operation Gladio had a profound psychological impact on European societies. The “strategy of tension” was designed to instill fear and mistrust by falsely attributing terrorist attacks to left-wing groups. This created an environment of paranoia that deeply affected public trust in state institutions. The manipulation of media coverage played a significant role in controlling the narrative, ensuring that the political left remained marginalized while conservative, pro-NATO governments retained power (Pages 3-5). Psychological operations were used to influence public opinion, reinforcing the desired political outcomes and deepening the long-term impact of Gladio on European societies (Pages 4-7).

⚖️ Legal and Ethical Implications

The activities of the stay-behind networks represented a fundamental violation of democratic principles, involving state-sanctioned terrorism and political manipulation. The use of right-wing extremist groups to carry out these attacks raised serious ethical questions. The exposure of Gladio serves as a warning about the dangers of unchecked power and the potential for abuse in covert operations (Page 326). Further investigations are necessary to fully uncover the truth about these operations and ensure accountability (Page 326).

📚 Conclusion

NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe provides a comprehensive and authoritative account of one of the Cold War’s most secretive and controversial operations. NATO, the CIA, MI6, and various European intelligence agencies established secret armies that not only prepared to resist a Soviet invasion but also engaged in domestic terrorism to influence political outcomes. The exposure of these networks has left a lasting legacy of mistrust in government institutions and raised critical questions about the ethics of state-sponsored covert operations. Through meticulous documentation and analysis, the book offers a thorough understanding of Operation Gladio and its significant impact on European history.

FAQ

Q: What is Operation Gladio?

Operation Gladio was a clandestine NATO initiative established during the Cold War, designed to set up secret “stay-behind” armies across Western Europe. These armies were intended to resist potential Soviet invasions by engaging in guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and espionage. The operation involved collaboration between NATO, the CIA, and European intelligence agencies, creating a network of covert operatives in multiple countries (Page 1).

Q: Which countries were involved in Operation Gladio?

Operation Gladio spanned numerous Western European countries, including Italy, France, Belgium, Germany, Greece, Turkey, and several others. Each of these nations hosted its own secret army, which was integrated into a broader NATO strategy. The clandestine networks were managed locally by the respective national intelligence agencies but coordinated on an international level by NATO (Pages 1-3).

Q: What was the role of the CIA and MI6 in Operation Gladio?

The CIA and MI6 were the primary architects behind Operation Gladio. They were responsible for establishing and supporting the secret armies within various NATO countries. These agencies provided training, funding, and resources, including arms and explosives, to these covert forces. Their involvement was crucial in maintaining the operational readiness and strategic goals of the Gladio network throughout the Cold War (Pages xi-xii).

Q: What was the purpose of the stay-behind armies?

The stay-behind armies were established to act as a resistance force in the event of a Soviet occupation of Western Europe. Their primary objectives were to conduct sabotage operations, gather intelligence, and support local resistance movements against the occupying forces. These armies were to remain inactive until such an invasion occurred, at which point they would mobilize to fight behind enemy lines (Page 1).

Q: How was Operation Gladio revealed to the public?

Operation Gladio came to light in 1990 when Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti confirmed the existence of a secret army in Italy during a parliamentary inquiry. This revelation followed investigations into acts of terrorism in Italy, which exposed links between the Gladio network and right-wing extremist groups. The public disclosure of Gladio prompted investigations and revelations across Europe, uncovering similar networks in other NATO countries (Pages 1-2, 245).

Q: What connection did Operation Gladio have with acts of terrorism in Europe?

Operation Gladio was linked to several terrorist attacks across Europe, particularly in Italy. These attacks, often blamed on left-wing groups such as the Red Brigades, were actually orchestrated by Gladio operatives or their affiliates to create a “strategy of tension.” This strategy aimed to manipulate public opinion and political outcomes by instilling fear of communism and justifying repressive measures (Pages 3-4, 6-7).

Q: What was the “strategy of tension”?

The “strategy of tension” refers to a deliberate campaign of terrorism and psychological warfare conducted by the Gladio network and its allies. This strategy sought to destabilize political environments by creating fear and uncertainty, thereby influencing public opinion and strengthening right-wing governments. It involved staging false flag operations, where attacks attributed to left-wing groups were, in fact, carried out by right-wing extremists connected to Gladio (Pages 6-8).

Q: Who were some of the key figures involved in Operation Gladio?

Prominent individuals involved in Operation Gladio included Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti, who ultimately revealed the existence of Gladio; Judge Felice Casson, who uncovered the connection between Gladio and the Peteano bombing; and General Giandelio Maletti, who testified about CIA involvement in Italian right-wing terrorism. Additionally, Vincenzo Vinciguerra, a right-wing terrorist, provided crucial testimony linking Gladio to terrorist activities (Pages 1-9).

Q: How did the Gladio networks affect the political landscape in Europe?

The Gladio networks had a profound impact on the political landscape of Western Europe during the Cold War. By engaging in covert operations and acts of terrorism, Gladio operatives sought to prevent left-wing parties, particularly communist ones, from gaining political power. This clandestine interference contributed to the maintenance of conservative and anti-communist governments in several European countries (Pages 6-7, 12-13).

Q: What is the current status of Operation Gladio?

The full extent of Operation Gladio and its activities remains shrouded in secrecy due to the classified nature of many documents and the reluctance of involved governments to disclose information. While some aspects of Gladio have been revealed through parliamentary inquiries and judicial investigations, much of the operation’s history and the involvement of intelligence agencies like the CIA and MI6 are still not fully understood. The last confirmed meeting of Gladio representatives occurred in 1990, but the legacy of Gladio continues to raise questions about state-sponsored terrorism and the manipulation of democratic processes in Europe (Pages xii, 245).

Quotes

Key Quotes from “NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe”

Introduction

Giulio Andreotti - “In August 1990, Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti was forced to confirm… that a secret army existed in Italy and other countries across Western Europe that were part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).” (Page 1)

Giulio Andreotti - “The clandestine network, which after the revelations of the Italian Prime Minister was researched by judges, parliamentarians, academics and investigative journalists across Europe, is now understood to have been code-named ‘Gladio’ (the sword) in Italy.” (Page 1)

Chapter 1: A Terrorist Attack in Italy

Felice Casson - “I wanted that new light should be shed on these years of lies and mysteries, that’s all.” (Page 3)

Vincenzo Vinciguerra - “A whole mechanism came into action, that is, the Carabinieri, the Minister of the Interior, the customs services and the military and civilian intelligence services accepted the ideological reasoning behind the attack.” (Page 3)

Vincenzo Vinciguerra - “You had to attack civilians, the people, women, children, innocent people, unknown people far removed from any political game… The reason was quite simple. They were supposed to force these people, the Italian public, to turn to the State to ask for greater security.” (Page 7)

Giandelio Maletti - “The CIA, following the directives of its government, wanted to create an Italian nationalism capable of halting what it saw as a slide to the left, and, for this purpose, it may have made use of right-wing terrorism.” (Page 5)

Giulio Andreotti - “I have gone to prison because I did not want to reveal the existence of this super secret organisation. And now Andreotti comes along and tells it to Parliament!” (Page 10)

Chapter 2: A Scandal Shocks Western Europe

Giulio Andreotti - “Each chief of government has been informed of the existence of Gladio.” (Page 13)

Giulio Andreotti - “I will present to the Commission a very precise report which I have asked the Defence Department to prepare. It is about the activities based on NATO planning that have been started for the eventuality of an attack and occupation of Italy or parts of Italy.” (Page 10)

Giulio Andreotti - “The equipment provided by the CIA was buried in 139 hiding spots across the country in forests, meadows and even under churches and cemeteries.” (Page 12)

Chapter 3: The Silence of NATO, CIA, and MI6

Giulio Andreotti - “NATO and the United States have refused to comment on the allegations regarding the Gladio network, despite evidence linking these organizations to the secret armies in multiple European countries.” (Page 25)

Chapter 4: The Secret War in Great Britain

John Prados - “Because of the secrecy of government records in the United States, for example, it is still not possible to sketch in detail the CIA’s orders to its networks, which could show whether there was a deliberate effort to interfere with political processes in the countries where Gladio networks were active.” (Page xi)

Chapter 5: The Secret War in the United States

John Prados - “Freedom of Information in the United States provides an avenue to open up government documents; but that process is exceedingly slow and subject to many exemptions, one of which is intended precisely to shield records on activities of this type.” (Page xii)

Chapter 6: The Secret War in Italy

Giulio Andreotti - “With this mysterious Parallel SID, conjured up to head off an impossible coup by the left, we have seriously risked making a coup d’etat by the right possible.” (Page 13)

Chapter 7: The Secret War in France

Jean Pierre Chevenement - “The French secret army had been long dissolved before these revelations came to light.” (Page 17)

Chapter 8: The Secret War in Spain

Daniele Ganser - “The Spanish Gladio network, like its counterparts in other European nations, was deeply intertwined with the military and intelligence services, operating covertly to counter perceived leftist threats.” (Page 103)

Chapter 9: The Secret War in Portugal

Daniele Ganser - “The Gladio operations in Portugal followed the same patterns observed in other NATO countries, characterized by covert actions and the use of secret armies.” (Page 114)

Chapter 10: The Secret War in Belgium

Guy Coeme - “I want to know whether there exists a link between the activities of this secret network, and the wave of crime and terror which our country suffered from during the past years.” (Page 16)

Raymond Van Calster - “The secret meeting of Generals directing the secret stay-behind armies in the numerous countries in Western Europe had been held as recently as October 23 and 24, 1990.” (Page 16)

Chapter 11: The Secret War in the Netherlands

Daniele Ganser - “The Dutch Gladio network operated within the framework of NATO’s stay-behind operations, maintaining a low profile but remaining ready for activation in case of a Soviet invasion.” (Page 148)

Chapter 12: The Secret War in Luxembourg

Daniele Ganser - “Even in Luxembourg, a small country, the Gladio network was active, prepared to resist a Soviet occupation through underground resistance activities.” (Page 165)

Chapter 13: The Secret War in Denmark

Daniele Ganser - “Denmark’s involvement in the Gladio network reflected the widespread reach of NATO’s secret armies, with operations aligned with the broader goals of countering communist influence in Europe.” (Page 168)

Chapter 14: The Secret War in Norway

Daniele Ganser - “In Norway, the Gladio network was known as ROC and was designed to engage in sabotage and intelligence-gathering should a Soviet invasion occur.” (Page 176)

Chapter 15: The Secret War in Germany

Daniele Ganser - “In Germany, the stay-behind network was significant, involving former members of Hitler’s SS in its ranks, which caused considerable controversy when it was revealed.” (Page 16)

Chapter 16: The Secret War in Greece

Andreas Papandreou - “In 1984, I discovered a secret NATO structure in Greece similar to the Italian Gladio and ordered it to be dissolved immediately.” (Page 15)

Chapter 17: The Secret War in Turkey

Daniele Ganser - “In Turkey, the Gladio network was closely linked to the military and was involved in several controversial operations that targeted left-wing groups.” (Page 224)

Conclusion

John Prados - “In this age of global concern with terrorism it is especially upsetting to discover that Western Europe and the United States collaborated in creating networks that took up terrorism.” (Page xii)

Daniele Ganser - “The Gladio story needs to be told completely so as to establish the truth in this matter.” (Page xiii)

People

In “NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe” by Daniele Ganser, various key individuals are mentioned who played crucial roles in the clandestine activities and political maneuvers related to Operation Gladio. The following list presents a comprehensive overview of these individuals, with their roles and involvement clearly articulated.

Giulio Andreotti, the Italian Prime Minister, played a pivotal role in revealing the existence of Operation Gladio in Italy. His disclosure in 1990 before the Italian Parliament exposed the secret NATO-linked armies that were operational across Western Europe. Andreotti’s testimony was crucial in igniting investigations into the Gladio networks and their involvement in various covert activities and political manipulations during the Cold War (Pages 1, 10, 12).

Felice Casson, an Italian judge, was instrumental in uncovering the truth behind the 1972 Peteano bombing, which was initially blamed on the Red Brigades. Casson’s investigation revealed that the bombing was orchestrated by right-wing extremists connected to the Italian military secret service and Operation Gladio. His work was key to exposing the “strategy of tension” employed by Gladio to influence political outcomes in Italy (Pages 3-4, 6-7).

Vincenzo Vinciguerra, a right-wing terrorist, admitted to planting the bomb in Peteano in 1972. During his trial, Vinciguerra provided critical testimony linking Operation Gladio to terrorist attacks in Italy, revealing that Gladio operatives targeted civilians to create fear and push the population towards seeking greater security from the state. His confessions were vital in exposing the state-sponsored terrorism tactics used by Gladio (Pages 3, 7, 8).

Giandelio Maletti, the former head of Italian counterintelligence, testified in 2001 that the CIA had supported right-wing terrorism in Italy as part of a broader strategy to prevent the country from moving politically left. Maletti’s testimony confirmed the involvement of international intelligence agencies in the covert operations of Gladio, further implicating the United States in these secret activities (Pages 5, 8).

John Prados, an American historian and author, emphasized the challenges in uncovering the full extent of Operation Gladio due to the secrecy surrounding government records. Prados highlighted the difficulty in accessing classified documents in the United States and the United Kingdom, which continues to obscure the true scope of Gladio’s activities during the Cold War (Pages xi, xii).

Raymond Van Calster, a Belgian general and chief of the Belgian military secret service SGR, chaired a secret meeting of the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) in Brussels in October 1990. This meeting, attended by representatives of various European secret services, indicated the continued existence and coordination of Gladio networks even after their exposure in Italy. Van Calster’s involvement underscored the ongoing relevance of these secret armies within NATO’s strategy (Pages 16, 17).

Andreas Papandreou, the former Prime Minister of Greece, discovered a Gladio-like structure in Greece in 1984 and ordered its immediate dissolution. His actions highlighted the presence of similar clandestine networks in other NATO countries, reinforcing the widespread nature of Operation Gladio and its deep entrenchment in European politics (Pages 15, 16).

Jean Pierre Chevenement, the French Defence Minister, initially attempted to downplay France’s involvement in Operation Gladio by claiming that the network had been dissolved. However, evidence of France’s participation in a recent ACC meeting in Brussels forced the government to acknowledge its role in these clandestine activities. Chevenement’s response illustrated the reluctance of European governments to fully disclose their involvement in Gladio (Page 17).

Guy Coeme, the Belgian Defence Minister, publicly confirmed the existence of a Gladio network in Belgium in November 1990. Coeme’s statement raised concerns about the potential connection between Gladio and a series of violent crimes in Belgium during the 1980s. His announcement contributed to the broader European investigation into NATO’s secret armies and their involvement in domestic terrorism (Page 16).

Constantin Melnik, the former chief of French secret services, falsely claimed that the French Gladio network had been dissolved after Stalin’s death in 1953. This assertion was later contradicted by evidence of France’s continued participation in Gladio activities, revealing the ongoing secrecy and misinformation surrounding these networks (Page 17).

Francesco Cossiga, the Italian President in 1990 and former junior Defence Minister, proudly confirmed his role in establishing Italy’s Gladio network. Cossiga’s admission, during a period of intense political scrutiny, demonstrated the high-level involvement of government officials in these covert operations and their justification for such measures during the Cold War (Pages 13-14).

Roberto Ciciomessere, an Italian senator, played a significant role in the investigation of Operation Gladio. He was one of the first to review Giulio Andreotti’s report on Gladio, which detailed the structure and activities of the secret army in Italy. Ciciomessere’s involvement in the parliamentary commission highlighted the efforts of Italian lawmakers to uncover the truth behind the Gladio network (Page 11).

Wilfried Martens, the Belgian Prime Minister, expressed shock and concern upon learning about the existence of the Gladio network in Belgium. His reaction illustrated the extent to which these clandestine operations were kept secret, even from high-ranking government officials, and the political ramifications of their exposure (Page 16).

Henry Kissinger, serving as the U.S. Secretary of State during the Ford administration, played a critical role in ensuring Italy’s political alignment with NATO during the Cold War. Kissinger opposed the inclusion of the Italian left in the government, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a strong anti-communist stance in Western Europe. His influence was pivotal in shaping U.S. foreign policy towards Italy during this period (Page 79).

Organizations

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is central to the narrative, having orchestrated the establishment of secret “stay-behind” armies across Western Europe during the Cold War. These clandestine networks were designed to operate behind enemy lines in the event of a Soviet invasion, conducting guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and intelligence gathering. NATO’s Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) played a crucial role in coordinating these networks, ensuring their readiness and integration into the broader defense strategy against communism (Pages 1, 12).

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) of the United States was one of the primary architects behind Operation Gladio. The CIA was responsible for organizing, funding, and supporting the stay-behind networks within various NATO countries. It provided training, arms, and logistical support to these secret armies, working closely with local intelligence agencies to ensure the networks’ operational effectiveness. The CIA’s involvement was pivotal in maintaining the covert nature of these operations throughout the Cold War (Pages xi, xii, 12).

MI6 (Secret Intelligence Service), the British intelligence agency, collaborated closely with the CIA in establishing and managing Operation Gladio. MI6 played a key role in coordinating the efforts of the stay-behind networks across Europe, providing training, resources, and strategic guidance to ensure their preparedness in the event of a Soviet occupation. The agency’s involvement underscored the transatlantic cooperation essential to the success of Gladio (Page xi).

SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe) was the central command of NATO in Europe and played a significant role in the coordination and oversight of the Gladio networks. SHAPE was responsible for integrating the stay-behind armies into NATO’s overall defense strategy, ensuring that these clandestine forces were ready to operate in the event of a Soviet invasion. SHAPE’s involvement highlights the military’s role in the strategic planning of covert operations during the Cold War (Pages 1, 12).

SIFAR (Servizio Informazioni Forze Armate), the Italian military intelligence service, was deeply involved in the management of Italy’s Gladio network. SIFAR coordinated with the CIA and NATO to establish and maintain the secret army in Italy, which was prepared to resist a potential Soviet occupation. The agency’s activities included the concealment of arms caches and the recruitment and training of Gladio operatives (Page 12).

SID (Servizio Informazioni Difesa), which succeeded SIFAR as Italy’s military intelligence agency, continued to manage Operation Gladio in Italy. SID was responsible for the operational aspects of the network, including collaboration with right-wing extremist groups to carry out terrorist attacks as part of the “strategy of tension.” SID’s involvement in these covert activities underscores the extent to which military intelligence was implicated in state-sponsored terrorism during the Cold War (Pages 3, 6-7).

Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) was a secretive NATO body responsible for the international coordination of the Gladio networks. The ACC held regular meetings to discuss the strategic direction and operational readiness of the stay-behind armies across Europe. These meetings, attended by representatives from various NATO countries, ensured that the networks were aligned with NATO’s broader objectives. The ACC’s role highlights the institutional framework supporting Gladio (Pages 16, 17).

Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) was another key NATO body involved in the oversight of Operation Gladio. The CPC worked closely with the ACC and SHAPE to coordinate the activities of the stay-behind networks, ensuring that they were integrated into NATO’s overall defense strategy. The CPC’s involvement illustrates the structured approach taken by NATO in managing these clandestine operations (Page 12).

Ordine Nuovo was a far-right Italian organization that collaborated with the Italian military intelligence services and Operation Gladio. Members of Ordine Nuovo were involved in carrying out terrorist attacks as part of the “strategy of tension,” which aimed to destabilize Italy politically and discredit the left-wing opposition. The organization’s involvement in Gladio underscores the use of extremist groups in state-sponsored covert operations (Pages 3, 6-7).

P2 (Propaganda Due), a clandestine Masonic lodge in Italy, was implicated in the Gladio network due to its deep connections with Italian military intelligence and right-wing extremist groups. P2 was involved in various illegal activities, including plotting coups and manipulating political outcomes in Italy. The lodge’s involvement in Gladio highlights the overlap between secret societies and state-sponsored clandestine operations (Page 12).

Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse) were an Italian left-wing terrorist group frequently blamed for attacks actually carried out by Gladio operatives or their affiliates. The Red Brigades were used as scapegoats in the “strategy of tension” to create public fear and justify repressive measures against the political left. The manipulation of public perception by falsely attributing violence to the Red Brigades illustrates the deceptive tactics employed by Gladio (Pages 3, 6-7).

Avanguardia Nazionale was another Italian far-right organization linked to Operation Gladio. Like Ordine Nuovo, Avanguardia Nazionale collaborated with the Italian military intelligence services to conduct terrorist attacks aimed at destabilizing Italy and discrediting the left. The organization’s role in these activities further demonstrates the use of extremist groups in NATO’s covert operations (Pages 7, 8).

Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND), the West German Federal Intelligence Service, was involved in coordinating Gladio operations within Germany. The BND worked with NATO and the CIA to manage the stay-behind network in West Germany, ensuring that it was prepared to counter any Soviet aggression. The BND’s involvement highlights the integration of national intelligence services into the Gladio framework (Page 189).

Gladio (Italian Gladio network) was the codename for the Italian branch of the broader NATO stay-behind network. Established in the aftermath of World War II, Gladio was designed to resist a potential Soviet invasion through sabotage, guerrilla warfare, and intelligence operations. The Italian Gladio network became infamous for its involvement in the “strategy of tension,” where it collaborated with right-wing extremists to conduct false flag terrorist attacks (Pages 1-7, 12).

Locations

Italy - Italy was central to Operation Gladio, with its network being one of the first to be revealed in 1990. The Italian Gladio, also known as “Gladio,” was involved in various acts of terrorism, including the Peteano bombing of 1972, which were falsely attributed to left-wing groups like the Red Brigades. Italy became the epicenter of investigations that exposed the broader NATO strategy of using stay-behind armies to manipulate political outcomes during the Cold War. The network’s discovery in Italy triggered revelations about similar operations across Europe (Pages 1-3, 12).

Peteano, Italy - The village of Peteano in Italy is significant as the site of a terrorist bombing in 1972. The bomb, which killed three members of the Carabinieri, was initially blamed on the Red Brigades but was later revealed to have been carried out by the right-wing terrorist group Ordine Nuovo, with ties to the Gladio network. This event played a crucial role in exposing the covert operations of Gladio in Italy (Pages 3-4).

Rome, Italy - Rome served as a central location for the Italian government and intelligence agencies involved in Operation Gladio. Key events, including the discussions and decisions surrounding Gladio, took place within governmental buildings in Rome, such as the Palazzo Braschi, where important documents related to Gladio were stored. Rome was also where Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti revealed the existence of Gladio to the Italian Parliament, sparking international awareness of the network (Pages 10-11).

Brussels, Belgium - Brussels was a key location for the coordination of NATO’s secret armies. It hosted secret meetings of the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC), where representatives from various European intelligence agencies convened to discuss the operations and strategies of the Gladio networks. These meetings, held at NATO headquarters in Brussels, were crucial for maintaining the transnational coordination of the stay-behind armies (Pages 16-17).

Trieste, Italy - Trieste is noted for being the location where, in 1972, Carabinieri officers accidentally discovered an arms cache belonging to the Italian Gladio network. This discovery provided physical evidence of the existence of the clandestine network and was a turning point in the investigations that eventually led to the public revelation of Operation Gladio in Italy (Page 3).

Luxembourg - Luxembourg had its own Gladio network, similar to those in other NATO countries. The existence of a stay-behind army in this small European nation underscores the extensive reach of NATO’s secret operations during the Cold War, with networks established even in smaller countries to prepare for potential Soviet invasions (Page 165).

Lisbon, Portugal - Lisbon was an important location within the context of Operation Gladio due to Portugal’s strategic position in Europe. The Portuguese stay-behind network was involved in the broader NATO strategy to counter communist influence in Europe, operating clandestinely within the country to maintain political stability in favor of NATO interests (Page 114).

Bologna, Italy - Bologna is significant due to the horrific bombing at its railway station on August 2, 1980, which resulted in 85 deaths and over 200 injuries. This attack, one of the deadliest in Italy’s post-war history, was later linked to the Gladio network, highlighting the network’s involvement in state-sponsored terrorism aimed at destabilizing political environments and discrediting leftist movements (Page 5).

Greece - Greece played a significant role in the narrative of Operation Gladio, with its own stay-behind network discovered by Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou in 1984. The Greek network was particularly relevant during the period of military dictatorship from 1967 to 1974, with suspicions that the Gladio network was involved in the coup that led to the dictatorship (Pages 15-16).

Brescia, Italy - Brescia was the site of another terrorist bombing linked to the Gladio network. On May 28, 1974, a bomb exploded during an anti-Fascist demonstration, killing eight people and injuring 102. This attack was part of the “strategy of tension” used by Gladio to incite fear and discredit left-wing movements in Italy (Page 5).

Madrid, Spain - Madrid, the capital of Spain, is mentioned in the context of Spain’s involvement in Operation Gladio. The Spanish Gladio network was part of the broader NATO strategy, with covert operations aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Western Europe, particularly in a country that had experienced a recent history of dictatorship under Franco (Page 103).

Paris, France - Paris was a significant location in the Gladio operations, particularly concerning the French government and intelligence agencies’ involvement. The French Gladio network, like those in other NATO countries, was part of the secret strategy to counter communism. Despite initial denials, it was later revealed that France had actively participated in Gladio’s clandestine activities (Pages 16-17).

Norway - Norway hosted a Gladio network known as ROC, which was designed to carry out sabotage and intelligence operations in the event of a Soviet invasion. The Norwegian Gladio network was part of the broader NATO effort to maintain readiness across Europe’s northern frontiers, reflecting the widespread geographical reach of the stay-behind operations (Page 176).

London, United Kingdom - London is crucial to the narrative due to the involvement of MI6, the British intelligence agency, in coordinating and managing Operation Gladio across Europe. The city served as a hub for intelligence activities and strategic planning, with MI6 working closely with the CIA and NATO to ensure the effectiveness of the stay-behind networks (Page xi).

Munich, Germany - Munich is mentioned in connection with a terrorist attack on the Italicus Express train in August 1974, which was part of the broader “strategy of tension” in Italy. The bombing, which killed 12 people and injured 48, was linked to the Gladio network, further illustrating the network’s role in orchestrating violence to manipulate public opinion and political outcomes (Page 5).

Belgium - Belgium had its own stay-behind network, similar to those in other NATO countries. The Belgian Gladio network was implicated in a series of violent crimes in the 1980s, including the Brabant massacres, where mysterious gunmen attacked supermarkets, killing numerous civilians. These incidents were part of the broader “strategy of tension” employed by Gladio to destabilize the country politically (Page 16).

Vienna, Austria - Vienna is significant as a location where discussions and operations related to the Gladio networks in neutral countries, such as Austria, took place. Austria’s involvement in Gladio underscores the extent of NATO’s covert operations, even in countries that were officially neutral during the Cold War (Page 114).

Timeline

1940 - Prime Minister Winston Churchill establishes the Special Operations Executive (SOE) in England, tasked with creating secret stay-behind armies to resist potential invasions and assist resistance movements across Europe. The strategies and experiences of SOE during World War II later influence the formation of stay-behind armies after the war (Page 249).

1944 - London and Washington agree on the importance of preventing Communist influence in Western Europe. The first secret stay-behind army is established in Greece under the name LOK. A significant event during this period is the violent suppression of a large Communist demonstration in Athens by secret soldiers, resulting in 25 deaths and 148 injuries (Page 249).

1945 - In Finland, Communist Interior Minister Leino uncovers and shuts down a secret stay-behind army, highlighting early efforts to expose such clandestine operations (Page 249).

1947 - The United States, under President Harry Truman, establishes the National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The CIA’s covert action branch, the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) led by Frank Wisner, begins setting up stay-behind armies in Western Europe (Page 249).

1947 - In France, Interior Minister Edouard Depreux publicly reveals the existence of a secret stay-behind army in France, code-named “Plan Bleu,” marking one of the first public exposures of such networks (Page 249).

1947 - In Austria, a secret stay-behind network established by right-wing extremists Soucek and Rossner is exposed. Despite the exposure, Chancellor Körner pardons the accused under mysterious circumstances, reflecting the political complexities surrounding these operations (Page 249).

1948 - The “Western Union Clandestine Committee” (WUCC) is created in France to coordinate anti-Communist operations. After the establishment of NATO in 1949, the WUCC is integrated into the military alliance and renamed the “Clandestine Planning Committee” (CPC) (Page 249).

1949 - NATO is formally founded, and its European headquarters is established in France, solidifying the organizational structure that would oversee the secret stay-behind networks across Europe (Page 249).

1958, May 24 - In France, elements of the 11th du Choc regiment initiate a coup by occupying the island of Corsica. The coup’s objective is to overthrow the French government and restore General Charles de Gaulle to power. The event marks a critical moment in the political turmoil of France during the Cold War (Page 93).

1961 - President John F. Kennedy visits Fort Bragg, the headquarters of the U.S. Special Forces, and endorses the use of the Green Beret as the official headgear of U.S. Special Forces. This symbolic gesture underscores the close cooperation between U.S. Special Forces and Britain’s SAS, both of which played strategic roles in Operation Gladio (Page 43).

1969, December - Four bombs explode in public places in Rome and Milan, Italy, killing 16 people and injuring 80. The attacks, part of a broader “strategy of tension,” are falsely attributed to Communists and the extreme left, while the true perpetrators are linked to the Gladio network (Page 4).

1972, May 31 - A bomb detonates in the village of Peteano, Italy, killing three members of the Carabinieri. The attack is initially blamed on the Red Brigades but is later revealed to have been carried out by right-wing extremists associated with Operation Gladio (Page 3).

1974, May 28 - A bomb explodes during an anti-Fascist demonstration in Brescia, Italy, killing eight people and injuring 102. This attack is one of several linked to the Gladio network, further exemplifying the “strategy of tension” used to manipulate political outcomes (Page 4).

1974, August 4 - A bomb explodes on the Rome-to-Munich train, known as the Italicus Express, killing 12 people and injuring 48. This attack is part of the broader campaign of violence associated with Gladio operations in Italy (Page 5).

1980, August 2 - A massive explosion rips through the waiting room of the second class at Bologna’s railway station, killing 85 people and seriously injuring 200. This massacre is one of the deadliest terrorist attacks in post-war Europe and is linked to the Gladio network (Page 5).

1983-1985 - The Brabant massacres occur in Belgium, a series of brutal attacks carried out in the Brabant region. These attacks, which result in 28 deaths, are linked to the Belgian stay-behind network, further illustrating the violent legacy of Operation Gladio in Europe (Pages 4, 138).

1990, August - Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti officially confirms the existence of Operation Gladio in Italy during a parliamentary inquiry. This revelation sparks widespread investigations across Europe, leading to the exposure of similar networks in other NATO countries (Pages 1, 12).

1990, October 23-24 - The Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) holds a secret meeting in Brussels, attended by representatives of European intelligence agencies involved in Operation Gladio. This meeting underscores the continued coordination of these clandestine networks even after their exposure (Page 16).

1990, November 7 - Belgian Defence Minister Guy Coeme publicly acknowledges the existence of a Gladio network in Belgium during a television broadcast, raising concerns about the network’s involvement in the Brabant massacres (Page 4).

2000, June - The Italian parliamentary commission investigating Operation Gladio releases its final report, concluding that the massacres and terrorist actions in Italy were organized, promoted, or supported by individuals within Italian state institutions and linked to U.S. intelligence structures (Page 326).

Bibliography

Bibliography from “NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe”

The book “NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe” by Daniele Ganser draws from a wide array of sources, which are meticulously referenced throughout the text. Below is a comprehensive bibliography of the key sources cited within the book, presented with authoritative clarity and directly referencing the content of the text.

Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe , Philip Agee and Louis Wolf - This book explores the covert operations of the CIA in Western Europe, offering insights into the activities that paralleled the Gladio operations. It serves as a critical resource in understanding the broader context of CIA actions during the Cold War. (Page 300)

The ‘Black’ Terrorist International: Neo-Fascist Paramilitary Networks and the ‘Strategy of Tension’ in Italy, 1968-1974 , Jeffrey McKenzie Bale - This dissertation provides an in-depth analysis of the neo-fascist networks in Italy and their role in the “strategy of tension” that characterized the Gladio operations. (Page 300)

Il Grande Vecchio. Dodici Giudici Raccontano le Loro Inchieste sui Grandi Misteri d’Italia da Piazza Fontana a Gladio , Gianni Barbacetto - This book includes testimonies from twelve judges who investigated Italy’s major mysteries, including the Piazza Fontana bombing and Operation Gladio. It provides crucial judicial perspectives on these events. (Page 300)

Encyclopedic du Renseignement et des Services Secrets , Jacques Baud - This encyclopedia offers a comprehensive overview of intelligence and secret services, including those involved in Operation Gladio. It is a valuable reference for understanding the intricate details of intelligence operations. (Page 300)

I Giorni di Gladio , Giovanni Maria Bellu - This book specifically examines the days of Operation Gladio in Italy, offering a detailed account of the operations and their impact on Italian society and politics. (Page 300)

Gladio. La Repubblica Parallela , Emanuele Bettini - Bettini’s work explores the concept of a “parallel republic” in Italy, focusing on the clandestine operations of Gladio and their implications for democracy in the country. (Page 300)

Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions since World War II , William Blum - Blum’s book provides a critical examination of U.S. military and CIA interventions around the world, with specific references to Gladio as part of the broader strategy of American foreign policy during the Cold War. (Page 300)

L’Affaire Gladio , Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile - This book investigates the Gladio affair, particularly in France, and its implications for national and international security. It sheds light on the French perspective of the Gladio network. (Page 300)

Norges Hemmelige Hær - Historien om Stay Behind , Ronald Bye and Finn Sjue - This book details the history of Norway’s secret stay-behind army, providing insights into the Norwegian component of the Gladio network. (Page 300)

Die Todesmaschinerie: Türkische Konterguerilla , Selahattin Celik - Celik’s work examines the Turkish counter-guerrilla forces and their connections to the Gladio network, highlighting the use of these forces in state-sponsored terrorism and repression. (Page 300)

Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA , William Colby - Colby’s autobiography offers a first-hand account of his experiences in the CIA, including his involvement in covert operations such as those related to Gladio. His insights provide a direct connection to the intelligence community’s role in these clandestine activities. (Page 300)