How NATO Uses Domestic Terror

Orchestrated Fear

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Introduction

NATO’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe by Daniele Ganser explores the existence of secret NATO-led “stay-behind” armies during the Cold War. These clandestine networks were established in Western European countries with the objective of “resisting a potential Soviet invasion”. However, these covert armies, including Italy’s Operation Gladio, became entangled in acts of terrorism and political manipulation, leading to one of the most controversial scandals in post-war European history.

Summary

🕵️‍♂️ The Origins of the Stay-Behind Networks

After World War II, NATO, in coordination with the CIA and MI6, established secret armies across Europe. These “stay-behind” forces were designed to remain inactive unless the Soviet Union invaded Western Europe, at which point they would organize resistance. The fear of Communist expansion dominated Western geopolitical thinking, and these covert forces were seen as a safeguard against Soviet occupation.

The CIA and MI6 played a leading role in creating and funding these secret armies. Many of the personnel recruited into these networks were former members of fascist or far-right organizations, particularly in countries like Italy and Germany. This alignment with right-wing forces laid the groundwork for later controversies, as these networks became involved in internal political conflicts rather than merely defensive operations.

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💣 Operation Gladio and Italy’s Role

Italy’s stay-behind army, Operation Gladio, is the most notorious of the networks, due to its involvement in violent acts during the 1960s and 1970s. Gladio operatives, often in collaboration with neo-fascist groups, carried out bombings, assassinations, and other terrorist activities. These actions were part of a broader “strategy of tension” aimed at creating fear and instability, which would shift public opinion towards more authoritarian, right-wing governments.

The most infamous example of this strategy was the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan, which killed 17 people. Initially blamed on anarchist groups, subsequent investigations revealed that right-wing extremists linked to Gladio were responsible. Other attacks, such as the Peteano bombing in 1972, also implicated Gladio operatives, confirming the network’s involvement in domestic terrorism designed to manipulate Italian politics.

🛑 The ‘Strategy of Tension’

The “strategy of tension” was a deliberate tactic used by Gladio operatives and their far-right allies to create fear and chaos through violent acts that would be blamed on left-wing extremists. By inciting panic, these groups hoped to push citizens towards supporting authoritarian measures and discredit leftist political movements. In Italy, this led to an era known as the “Years of Lead,” a period of intense political violence characterized by bombings, shootings, and other acts of terrorism.

The strategy was not confined to Italy. Similar tactics were employed in Belgium, France, and Germany, where stay-behind networks operated. These countries saw their own versions of political manipulation through violence, as the right-wing networks sought to maintain control over political outcomes by undermining the left.

🔍 The Role of Intelligence Agencies

Intelligence services, particularly the CIA and MI6, were deeply involved in the operations of these secret armies. The CIA provided funds and training to the stay-behind networks, ensuring that they were equipped to act in the event of a Soviet invasion. However, the agencies also condoned, and in some cases, directed, the use of these networks for political manipulation.

Italian intelligence agencies, especially the Servizio Informazioni Difesa (SID), were instrumental in supporting Gladio’s activities. They worked closely with neo-fascist groups to carry out attacks that were falsely attributed to left-wing militants. Investigations later revealed that military and intelligence officials had been complicit in these operations, using state resources to fund and protect extremist groups.

⚖️ Exposure and Scandal

The existence of Gladio and other stay-behind networks was not publicly acknowledged until the 1990s. In 1990, Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti confirmed the existence of Gladio in response to growing public pressure and investigations by Italian judge Felice Casson. Casson’s investigation into the 1972 Peteano bombing uncovered the involvement of military and intelligence officials in the attack, leading to revelations about the broader secret network.

Andreotti’s admission sparked widespread outrage and led to parliamentary inquiries across Europe. Similar networks were uncovered in countries like Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland, revealing the extent of NATO’s covert operations in Western Europe. These inquiries exposed the unethical and illegal activities carried out by these networks, particularly their involvement in domestic terrorism and political manipulation.

🇪🇺 Wider European Involvement

While Italy was at the center of the Gladio scandal, other NATO countries had their own versions of stay-behind networks. In Belgium, the Brabant massacres, a series of violent attacks in the 1980s, were linked to right-wing extremists with connections to the secret army. France also maintained a stay-behind network, as did neutral countries like Switzerland and Sweden, which feared Communist influence despite not being part of NATO.

These revelations raised serious concerns about the role of NATO and its member states in using covert operations to undermine democratic processes. The use of former fascists and right-wing extremists as operatives in these networks further tainted NATO’s reputation and led to calls for greater transparency and accountability in intelligence operations.

🛠️ NATO’s Involvement

NATO’s official bodies, such as the Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) and the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC), were responsible for coordinating the activities of these stay-behind armies. These committees held regular meetings with representatives from European intelligence services, ensuring that each country’s secret army remained operational and ready for deployment. NATO’s role in overseeing these covert operations highlighted its involvement in not only defense against the Soviet Union but also in internal political affairs of its member states.

📜 Legacy and Impact

The exposure of Gladio and NATO’s stay-behind networks has had a lasting impact on European politics and public trust in government institutions. The revelations that state actors were complicit in terrorism and political manipulation shocked the public and raised questions about the accountability of intelligence agencies and military forces. While NATO justified the creation of these networks as a defense mechanism against the Soviet threat, their use for internal political manipulation has left a dark legacy.

In the aftermath of the Gladio revelations, several European governments launched investigations, but the full extent of these operations remains classified. Many of the key figures involved have not been held accountable, and questions remain about the continuing influence of clandestine military and intelligence operations in Europe.

🌍 Conclusion

NATO’s Secret Armies by Daniele Ganser provides a detailed and compelling account of the secret stay-behind networks that operated in Western Europe during the Cold War. These clandestine armies, originally intended to defend against Soviet occupation, became embroiled in terrorism and political manipulation. The book reveals how intelligence agencies like the CIA and MI6, in collaboration with NATO, facilitated these covert operations. The exposure of Operation Gladio and similar networks has left a lasting legacy of mistrust in European governments and raised ethical questions about the use of covert operations in democratic societies.

Find out a lot more at The Corbett Report.

How NATO, the CIA, and the Vatican Conspired in Operation Gladio

FAQ

Q: What was the purpose of NATO’s secret armies during the Cold War?
NATO’s secret armies were established to counter a potential Soviet invasion of Western Europe. These stay-behind networks were intended to organize local resistance and sabotage operations behind enemy lines, should the Soviet Union occupy Western Europe. The networks were formed in collaboration with the CIA and MI6 (Page 5, 7).

Q: What was Operation Gladio?
Operation Gladio was the codename for the secret NATO stay-behind network in Italy. It was a clandestine effort designed to organize and activate resistance in case of a Soviet invasion. Over time, Operation Gladio became associated with anti-Communist operations within Italy, involving right-wing groups and, in some cases, acts of terrorism (Page 10).

Q: Which countries were involved in creating these stay-behind armies?
The stay-behind armies were established in all NATO countries during the Cold War, including Italy, Belgium, France, and Germany. Similar networks also existed in neutral countries like Switzerland, Finland, and Sweden. These operations were coordinated at the international level by NATO through bodies such as the Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) and the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) (Page 7, 11).

Q: What role did the CIA and MI6 play in these operations?
The CIA and MI6 were instrumental in creating and supporting NATO’s secret armies. They provided training, arms, and funds for the stay-behind networks, and coordinated their activities through NATO. The agencies were deeply involved in the planning and operational oversight of these secret armies throughout the Cold War (Page 8, 10).

Q: What were the accusations against NATO’s secret armies regarding terrorism?
NATO’s secret armies, especially Operation Gladio in Italy, have been linked to acts of terrorism, including bombings and assassinations, that were wrongly attributed to left-wing groups. These actions were part of a strategy to discredit the political left and strengthen anti-Communist forces in Western Europe (Page 12, 14).

Q: How was Operation Gladio revealed to the public?
Operation Gladio was publicly exposed in Italy in 1990 when Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti confirmed the existence of a secret stay-behind network. This revelation led to investigations and parliamentary inquiries in several countries, uncovering similar networks across Western Europe (Page 14, 15).

Q: Did any political figures or organizations collaborate with the secret armies?
Several prominent political figures, including Prime Ministers, Interior Ministers, and military leaders, were aware of or involved in these secret operations. The secret armies also collaborated with right-wing extremist groups, especially in Italy, where they were linked to terrorist attacks falsely attributed to left-wing militants (Page 12, 17).

Q: What was the ‘strategy of tension’ and how did it relate to Gladio?
The ‘strategy of tension’ refers to the use of violence and terror to create fear and instability, with the aim of pushing the public towards conservative, anti-Communist governments. Operation Gladio and similar networks were implicated in using this strategy, as they were connected to bombings and attacks blamed on left-wing groups to undermine their political influence (Page 16).

Q: What role did NATO play in coordinating the secret armies?
NATO played a central role in the organization and coordination of the stay-behind networks. Through the CPC and ACC, NATO ensured that these secret armies were operational in multiple countries, ready to act in case of a Soviet invasion or in other strategic situations deemed necessary by NATO and its allies (Page 11, 13).

Q: Were these secret networks dismantled after their exposure?
Following the exposure of Operation Gladio in 1990, several of these networks were officially disbanded. However, full details about the extent of their operations and involvement in political manipulation and terrorism remain classified, and there has been limited accountability for those involved (Page 18, 19).

Undercover Empire

People

Giulio Andreotti - As the Italian Prime Minister, Giulio Andreotti played a central role in revealing Operation Gladio to the public in 1990. His declaration confirmed the existence of a secret NATO-linked stay-behind army in Italy, which had been involved in covert operations since the end of World War II. This disclosure triggered significant political and legal investigations not only in Italy but across Europe, as similar networks were suspected to exist in other NATO countries. Andreotti’s role in the Italian government spanned decades, and he was known for his deep involvement in Cold War-era politics, making him a highly influential figure in both domestic and international affairs. His long-standing influence in Italian politics was evident as he served multiple terms as Prime Minister and held various ministerial positions, including Minister of Defense and Foreign Minister. Andreotti’s testimony about Gladio raised concerns about the role of secret military structures in democratic states and their implications for the rule of law.

Felice Casson - Felice Casson, an Italian judge, was instrumental in exposing the secret operations of Gladio in Italy. In 1984, he reopened the investigation into the 1972 Peteano bombing, which had previously been attributed to the far-left Red Brigades. Casson’s thorough investigation revealed that the bombing had actually been orchestrated by right-wing extremists in collaboration with elements of the Italian military intelligence services. This groundbreaking discovery shed light on the broader covert operations conducted by Gladio and its links to acts of domestic terrorism. Casson’s work not only unmasked the role of the Italian military in these operations but also raised questions about NATO’s involvement and the use of stay-behind networks to influence political outcomes in Europe. His persistence and dedication to uncovering the truth were key in bringing the secret history of Gladio to public attention.

Vincenzo Vinciguerra - A former member of the right-wing extremist group Ordine Nuovo, Vincenzo Vinciguerra played a pivotal role in exposing the inner workings of Gladio’s operations. Vinciguerra was responsible for planting the bomb in the Peteano attack, and he later confessed to the crime. His testimony was crucial in revealing the extent to which the Italian military intelligence services and Gladio had supported right-wing terrorist activities during the Cold War. Vinciguerra described how these attacks were part of a broader “strategy of tension” aimed at discrediting left-wing political groups by blaming them for acts of terrorism. His detailed confessions exposed the collaboration between extremist groups and state security forces, highlighting the manipulation of public opinion through violent means. Vinciguerra’s statements provided valuable insight into how Gladio operated behind the scenes to maintain control over political developments in Italy and other parts of Europe.

Stefano Delle Chiaie - A notorious Italian neo-fascist, Stefano Delle Chiaie was closely associated with several far-right terrorist organizations and was linked to the activities of Gladio. He was involved in numerous violent acts, including bombings and assassination plots, aimed at destabilizing the Italian political system during the turbulent “Years of Lead” in the 1970s. Delle Chiaie was known for his connections to international right-wing extremist networks and his role in supporting dictatorial regimes in Latin America. His involvement with Gladio highlighted the close ties between state security forces and far-right militants who sought to prevent the rise of Communist influence in Italy and other European countries. Delle Chiaie’s actions were part of a broader effort to maintain Western political dominance in the face of Soviet expansion during the Cold War.

Yves Guerain Serac - Yves Guerain Serac, a French right-wing terrorist, was another key figure connected to NATO’s stay-behind networks. Serac was a former officer in the French army and had a background in counter-insurgency operations. He played a significant role in organizing paramilitary groups across Europe as part of the anti-Communist struggle. Serac’s expertise in guerilla warfare and his leadership in setting up clandestine resistance groups made him a central figure in the operations of Gladio. His influence extended beyond France, as he worked to build an international network of anti-Communist fighters who were prepared to engage in covert operations to protect Western interests. Serac’s activities reflected the transnational nature of Gladio’s operations, where right-wing extremists were recruited to carry out NATO’s broader strategic objectives during the Cold War.

Winston Churchill - Although not directly involved in Operation Gladio, Winston Churchill’s post-World War II policies were instrumental in shaping the geopolitical landscape that led to the creation of NATO and its clandestine networks. Churchill famously described the divide between Western Europe and the Soviet bloc as the “Iron Curtain,” which became the symbolic representation of the Cold War. His leadership in forming the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was driven by the need to create a military alliance to counter the growing threat of Soviet expansion. The stay-behind armies, including Gladio, were established as part of this defensive strategy to ensure that Western Europe could resist a potential Soviet invasion. Churchill’s vision of a united Western defense against Communism laid the foundation for the covert operations that would later unfold through NATO’s secret armies.

General Vito Miceli - General Vito Miceli, the head of Italy’s military intelligence service (SID), was deeply involved in the operations of Gladio. In the early 1970s, Miceli was arrested and charged with conspiring to overthrow the government through a right-wing coup, which revealed his connections to the Gladio network. During his trial, Miceli admitted the existence of a secret stay-behind army in Italy but claimed that it had been established under the orders of NATO and the United States. His role as a high-ranking military official placed him at the center of Italy’s covert anti-Communist operations, and his testimony provided further evidence of the close ties between state security forces and Gladio’s underground activities. Miceli’s case highlighted the involvement of top military officials in efforts to manipulate the political landscape of Italy during the Cold War.

Franco Freda - Franco Freda was a prominent figure in Italy’s far-right political scene and was implicated in several acts of terrorism during the 1960s and 1970s. He was linked to the Piazza Fontana bombing, a significant attack that marked the beginning of the “strategy of tension” in Italy. Freda’s involvement with extremist groups like Ordine Nuovo connected him to the broader operations of Gladio, as these right-wing organizations were used to carry out violent acts that were falsely attributed to left-wing militants. Freda’s actions were part of the larger effort to undermine the influence of Communism in Italy and to create a climate of fear that would push the public toward more conservative political forces.

Pino Rauti - Pino Rauti, a leading figure in Italy’s neo-fascist movement, was associated with Ordine Nuovo and other far-right groups involved in terrorism during the Cold War. Rauti’s connections to Gladio were significant, as his organization played a key role in the violent campaign against left-wing political movements in Italy. His involvement in paramilitary activities and his ties to military intelligence highlighted the collaboration between the Italian state and extremist groups in their efforts to counter the Communist threat. Rauti’s influence extended beyond Italy, as he was part of a broader network of right-wing militants across Europe who were engaged in similar operations.

Andreas Papandreou - As the Prime Minister of Greece, Andreas Papandreou exposed the existence of a secret NATO-linked stay-behind network in his country, similar to Operation Gladio in Italy. In 1984, Papandreou ordered the dismantling of this clandestine army after discovering its operations. His disclosure added to the growing list of countries where NATO’s covert activities had been exposed, raising concerns about the extent of U.S. and NATO influence over European political systems during the Cold War. Papandreou’s revelation underscored the international scope of the Gladio network and its involvement in shaping political outcomes in multiple countries.

Organizations

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) - NATO, formed after World War II, was the primary organization responsible for coordinating the secret stay-behind networks across Western Europe. These networks, including Operation Gladio, were set up under NATO’s oversight as part of its Cold War strategy to counter potential Soviet invasion. NATO played a key role in structuring, training, and managing the stay-behind armies in collaboration with national governments and intelligence agencies across Europe.

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) - The CIA was heavily involved in the creation and maintenance of NATO’s secret armies. The agency provided financial support, arms, and training to the stay-behind networks, including Operation Gladio. The CIA worked closely with MI6 and other intelligence agencies to ensure that these secret armies could operate covertly across NATO member states, playing a significant role in coordinating anti-Communist activities throughout Europe during the Cold War.

MI6 (Secret Intelligence Service) - MI6, the British intelligence service, collaborated with the CIA in establishing and supporting NATO’s stay-behind networks. MI6’s involvement was crucial in coordinating the operations of these secret armies within NATO countries, particularly in the early stages of their creation after World War II. The agency provided strategic guidance, training, and resources to ensure that these networks remained effective in the event of a Soviet invasion or during political instability caused by Communist movements.

Operation Gladio - Operation Gladio was the codename for Italy’s branch of NATO’s stay-behind army. Set up by the CIA and MI6, Gladio was intended to act as a covert defense against potential Soviet occupation. However, it became notorious for its involvement in domestic terrorism and political manipulation, with its operatives accused of conducting false-flag operations to discredit left-wing groups and bolster right-wing forces in Italy.

Ordine Nuovo - Ordine Nuovo was an Italian neo-fascist organization that collaborated with the Gladio network in conducting terrorist attacks during the 1960s and 1970s. The group’s members were involved in several bombings, including the 1972 Peteano bombing, which were initially blamed on left-wing extremists but later revealed to be part of a right-wing strategy of tension. Ordine Nuovo played a crucial role in the violence that marked Italy’s “Years of Lead.”

Avanguardia Nazionale - Another Italian neo-fascist group, Avanguardia Nazionale, worked closely with Ordine Nuovo and other right-wing extremists involved in the Gladio network. Avanguardia Nazionale members participated in violent acts aimed at destabilizing the political left, with the support of Italy’s military intelligence services. This group was a central player in the terrorist attacks linked to the Gladio operations in Italy.

Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) - The ACC was a NATO body responsible for overseeing the coordination of the stay-behind networks in various member countries. This committee worked to ensure that each country’s network was fully operational and prepared to act in the event of a Soviet invasion. The ACC held regular meetings with representatives from European intelligence services to maintain a unified approach to anti-Communist operations.

Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) - Similar to the ACC, the CPC was another NATO-affiliated body tasked with the planning and coordination of the stay-behind networks. The CPC was instrumental in developing the strategies and operational guidelines that the stay-behind armies would follow, ensuring that they were prepared for both wartime and peacetime covert operations. The CPC also facilitated the sharing of intelligence and resources among NATO countries.

Servizio Informazioni Difesa (SID) - SID was Italy’s military intelligence service responsible for overseeing the country’s stay-behind army, Gladio. The agency played a significant role in coordinating Gladio’s covert operations, including its collaboration with right-wing terrorist groups. SID’s involvement in these activities was revealed during investigations into Gladio, exposing its deep connections to anti-Communist efforts and domestic terrorism.

Stay-Behind Networks - The stay-behind networks were covert paramilitary groups established by NATO, the CIA, and MI6 across Western Europe. These networks were designed to organize resistance in the event of a Soviet invasion, but in many cases, they became involved in domestic political manipulation and terrorism. The networks operated in numerous countries, including Italy, Belgium, France, and Germany, often collaborating with right-wing extremist groups to suppress Communist influence.

Locations

Italy - Italy was the focal point of Operation Gladio, where the existence of the secret stay-behind army was first publicly revealed in 1990 by Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti. Italy’s Gladio network was deeply involved in anti-Communist efforts and was linked to a series of violent acts, including the infamous Peteano bombing in 1972 and the Piazza Fontana massacre in 1969. Italy became the center of international attention as investigations uncovered Gladio’s ties to right-wing terrorism and domestic political manipulation during the Cold War.

Belgium - Belgium hosted one of the stay-behind networks similar to Gladio, which was also connected to violent acts within the country. The discovery of this network raised concerns about its involvement in the so-called Brabant massacres, a series of violent attacks in the 1980s. Belgium played a key role in NATO’s coordination of these secret armies, and the revelation of its stay-behind forces contributed to the broader scandal surrounding Gladio.

Greece - Greece was another country where a NATO-linked stay-behind network operated during the Cold War. Former Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou confirmed in 1990 that a secret army existed in Greece, similar to Operation Gladio in Italy. This network was suspected of being involved in the 1967 military coup that brought the Greek junta to power. Papandreou’s disclosure added to the growing list of countries implicated in NATO’s covert operations against perceived Communist threats.

France - France was involved in NATO’s stay-behind operations, with its own secret network active during the Cold War. Though details about France’s stay-behind army remained limited, it was confirmed that French representatives had participated in the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) meetings, showing the country’s engagement in these covert activities. France’s stay-behind network was part of the broader NATO strategy to resist Communist influence in Western Europe.

Germany - Germany’s stay-behind network was also linked to NATO’s covert operations during the Cold War. Investigations revealed that former members of the Nazi SS were recruited into Germany’s secret army as part of the anti-Communist efforts. The exposure of the network in Germany sparked outrage and calls for parliamentary inquiries, as it raised questions about the role of former Nazis in NATO’s operations.

Switzerland - Although not a NATO member, Switzerland maintained its own stay-behind network during the Cold War, which was linked to NATO operations. Switzerland’s secret army operated with the same anti-Communist objectives as the networks in NATO countries, and its existence highlighted the broader European involvement in these covert operations. The Swiss stay-behind network was revealed in the 1990s, further expanding the scope of the Gladio scandal.

Turkey - Turkey hosted a stay-behind network as part of NATO’s anti-Communist strategy. The Turkish branch of the Gladio network was involved in supporting military coups and suppressing left-wing movements in the country. Turkey’s involvement in Gladio demonstrated the extensive reach of NATO’s covert operations, particularly in countries where Communist parties or movements posed a significant threat to Western interests.

Peteano - Peteano, a small village in Italy, was the site of a 1972 bombing that killed three members of the Carabinieri. The attack was initially blamed on left-wing extremists, but Judge Felice Casson’s investigation revealed that it had been orchestrated by right-wing terrorists connected to Operation Gladio. The Peteano bombing became a pivotal moment in uncovering Gladio’s involvement in domestic terrorism.

Piazza Fontana (Milan) - Piazza Fontana in Milan was the location of a bombing in 1969 that killed 17 people. This attack marked the beginning of Italy’s “strategy of tension” and was initially blamed on anarchists and left-wing groups. However, later investigations linked the bombing to right-wing extremists and the Gladio network, exposing the manipulation of public opinion through terrorism.

Bologna - Bologna’s central train station was the site of a massive bombing on August 2, 1980, which killed 85 people and injured over 200. The Bologna massacre was one of the deadliest terrorist attacks in Italy’s history and was eventually linked to right-wing extremists and Gladio. This event highlighted the extent to which Gladio’s secret network was involved in violent efforts to destabilize left-wing political movements.

Timeline

1947 - The creation of NATO’s secret stay-behind networks began shortly after World War II. These networks were established by Western intelligence agencies, including the CIA and MI6, to form a covert resistance in case of a Soviet invasion of Western Europe. The stay-behind armies were a critical part of NATO’s Cold War strategy to counter the Soviet threat.

1949 - NATO was officially founded, and its stay-behind networks were fully incorporated into the defense plans of its member states. These secret armies were set up in countries like Italy, Belgium, France, and Germany, with coordination from NATO bodies such as the Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) and the Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC).

1956 - The Hungarian Uprising against Soviet control underscored the importance of NATO’s stay-behind networks. While the uprising was ultimately crushed by Soviet forces, it reinforced NATO’s determination to maintain secret armies throughout Western Europe as a safeguard against Soviet expansion.

1967 - A military coup in Greece led to the establishment of a right-wing dictatorship. It was later revealed that the Greek stay-behind network, similar to Italy’s Operation Gladio, may have been involved in supporting the coup, contributing to the suppression of left-wing movements in the country.

1969 - The Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan marked the beginning of Italy’s “strategy of tension.” The bombing, which killed 17 people, was initially blamed on anarchists, but later investigations linked it to right-wing extremists and the Gladio network. This attack was part of a broader campaign to discredit the political left in Italy through violence and manipulation.

1972 - The Peteano bombing occurred in Italy, killing three Carabinieri officers. This attack, initially attributed to left-wing terrorists, was later revealed to have been carried out by right-wing extremists connected to Operation Gladio. Judge Felice Casson’s investigation into the bombing was a turning point in exposing the secret operations of Gladio in Italy.

1974 - General Vito Miceli, head of Italy’s military intelligence service SID, was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the government. His arrest exposed the involvement of military and intelligence officials in secret anti-Communist operations, including the coordination of Gladio’s activities. Miceli’s case brought further attention to the role of NATO and its member states in maintaining secret armies.

1980 - The Bologna massacre occurred on August 2, 1980, when a bomb exploded at the central train station in Bologna, killing 85 people and injuring over 200. This terrorist attack was linked to right-wing extremists and the Gladio network. The massacre was one of the deadliest acts of violence in Italy’s post-war history and fueled public outrage over the involvement of secret networks in domestic terrorism.

1984 - Greek Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou publicly confirmed the existence of a stay-behind network in Greece. His statement revealed the involvement of NATO in maintaining a secret army within the country, similar to Gladio in Italy. This disclosure added to the growing concern over NATO’s clandestine operations across Europe.

1990 - Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti formally acknowledged the existence of Operation Gladio. His revelation confirmed that Italy had been home to a NATO-linked stay-behind network for decades. This admission led to a series of investigations in Italy and across Europe, uncovering the extensive reach of NATO’s secret armies and their involvement in political manipulation and acts of terrorism.

1990-1991 - Following Andreotti’s disclosure, investigations into NATO’s stay-behind networks were launched across Europe, including in Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland. These investigations revealed the extent of NATO’s covert operations and raised questions about the legality and ethics of these secret armies.

Bibliography

Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe by Philip Agee and Louis Wolf
This work is central to the understanding of CIA operations in Europe, which were crucial to the establishment of NATO’s stay-behind networks. Agee and Wolf discuss the CIA’s paramilitary activities, which are foundational to the narrative of Gladio and its clandestine role in Western Europe.

The ‘Black’ Terrorist International: Neo-Fascist Paramilitary Networks and the ‘Strategy of Tension’ in Italy by Jeffrey McKenzie Bale
This dissertation provides a detailed exploration of neo-fascist paramilitary networks in Italy, examining their role in the strategy of tension, where right-wing extremists, linked to Operation Gladio, engaged in acts of terrorism to manipulate political outcomes.

Il Grande vecchio by Gianni Barbacetto
Barbacetto’s book investigates Italy’s political intrigues, including the role of Operation Gladio in destabilizing the political left. It provides insights into the figures and mechanisms behind Italy’s major post-war political scandals.

Encyclopédie du renseignement et des services secrets by Jacques Baud
This comprehensive encyclopedia covers intelligence and secret services, providing a broader context for understanding NATO’s stay-behind networks. It includes essential information on the clandestine operations that defined Cold War Europe.

I giorni di Gladio by Giovanni Maria Bellu
This book focuses on the Italian revelation of Operation Gladio, providing an in-depth account of the secret army’s exposure and its implications for Italian politics. Bellu’s work is crucial in understanding the legal and political fallout from the Gladio scandal.

Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II by William Blum
Blum’s book addresses US interventions worldwide, including CIA operations in Europe. His analysis of how the CIA influenced European politics through clandestine activities is integral to understanding NATO’s stay-behind networks.

L’affaire Gladio by Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile
This investigative work delves into the Gladio revelations in France and beyond, highlighting the secret operations and their effects on European political systems. Brozzu-Gentile’s book offers critical perspectives on the French chapter of the Gladio story.

Norges Hemmelige Haer – Historien om Stay Behind by Ronald Bye and Finn Sjue
This book covers Norway’s stay-behind army and its role within NATO’s broader secret network. It provides key insights into Norway’s Cold War clandestine operations and their connections to NATO’s Gladio network.

Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA by William Colby
Colby’s memoir provides a first-hand account of his role in creating NATO’s stay-behind armies in Europe. His reflections on the CIA’s covert operations offer essential context for understanding how these secret armies were formed and maintained.

Il lato oscuro del potere by Giuseppe De Lutiis
De Lutiis’ book analyzes the dark side of Italian politics, focusing on the covert operations that shaped the country’s post-war history. It includes critical assessments of Gladio’s role in undermining left-wing political movements.

Segreto di Stato: La verità da Gladio al caso Moro by Giovanni Fasanella, Claudio Sestieri, and Giovanni Pellegrino
This book investigates the connection between Operation Gladio and major political events in Italy, including the kidnapping of Aldo Moro. It explores the deep ties between Italy’s secret army and the country’s political instability during the Cold War.

Glossary

Operation Gladio - A covert NATO initiative that established secret “stay-behind” armies in Western Europe to organize resistance in case of a Soviet invasion. These networks were often connected to right-wing terrorism during the Cold War, particularly in Italy, where they were implicated in violent acts to manipulate political outcomes.

Stay-behind Networks - These were secret paramilitary groups created by NATO across Europe during the Cold War. Their purpose was to act as guerrilla fighters in the event of a Soviet occupation. These networks, like Gladio, were later found to have engaged in domestic political manipulation and terrorism.

Strategy of Tension - A Cold War tactic used primarily in Italy, where right-wing extremists, with support from intelligence services, carried out bombings and terrorist acts that were blamed on left-wing groups. The goal was to create fear and instability, pushing the public towards conservative governments and discrediting the political left.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) - A military alliance established in 1949 to counter Soviet influence in Europe. NATO was central to the formation of stay-behind armies, coordinating with the CIA and MI6 to support anti-Communist operations through clandestine networks like Gladio.

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) - The United States’ foreign intelligence service, which played a key role in organizing and financing NATO’s stay-behind networks during the Cold War. The CIA provided training, arms, and funding to these secret armies to support Western Europe’s anti-Communist efforts.

MI6 (Secret Intelligence Service) - The British intelligence agency that worked closely with the CIA in setting up and maintaining NATO’s stay-behind networks. MI6 was deeply involved in Gladio and other clandestine operations across Europe during the Cold War.

Neo-Fascists - Far-right extremist groups in Europe that were often linked to violent acts during the Cold War. Many of these groups, particularly in Italy, were connected to Gladio and engaged in bombings and assassinations as part of the strategy of tension.

Years of Lead - A period of political turmoil in Italy, marked by widespread violence, terrorism, and social unrest between the 1960s and 1980s. During this time, Gladio networks were implicated in various terrorist attacks attributed to right-wing extremists aiming to destabilize the political system.

Peteano Bombing - A 1972 bombing in Peteano, Italy, that killed three Carabinieri officers. Initially blamed on left-wing militants, the bombing was later revealed to have been carried out by right-wing extremists linked to Operation Gladio, as uncovered by Judge Felice Casson’s investigation.

Clandestine Planning Committee (CPC) - A secret NATO body responsible for coordinating the stay-behind networks across Europe. The CPC played a critical role in ensuring these networks remained functional and ready to act in the event of a Soviet invasion or other emergencies.

Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) - Another NATO committee that oversaw the operations of the stay-behind armies. The ACC ensured that NATO countries’ secret armies were well-coordinated, equipped, and capable of conducting covert operations if necessary.